This is completed downloadable of Test Bank for Principles of General Chemistry, 2nd Edition: Silberberg
Product Details:
- ISBN-10 : 0077366670
- ISBN-13 : 978-0077366674
- Author; Silberberg
Silberberg’s Principles of General Chemistry offers students the same authoritative topic coverage as its parent text, Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change. The Principles text allows for succinct coverage of content with minimal emphasis on pedagogic learning aids. This more straightforward approach to learning appeals to today’s efficiency-minded, value-conscious instructors and students without sacrificing depth, clarity, or rigor.
Table of Contents
Brief Contents 1 Keys to the Study of Chemistry 1 2 The Components of Matter 31 3 Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 69 4 The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 108 5 Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 138 6 Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 177 7 Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 205 8 Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 235 9 Models of Chemical Bonding 268 10 The Shapes of Molecules 296 11 Theories of Covalent Bonding 323 12 Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 347 13 The Properties of Solutions 389 14 The Main-Group Elements: Applying Principles of Bonding and Structure 423 15 Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 457 16 Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 498 17 Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 540 18 Acid-Base Equilibria 577 19 Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 615 20 Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Direction of Chemical Reactions 650 21 Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 681 22 The Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds 734 23 Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 762 Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1 Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances at 298 K A-5 Appendix C Equilibrium Constants at 298 K A-8 Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials at 298 K A-14 Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems A-15 Contents 1 CHAPTER Keys to the Study of Chemistry 1 1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions 2 The Properties of Matter 2 The Three States of Matter 3 The Central Theme in Chemistry 5 The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter 5 1.2 The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model 7 1.3 Chemical Problem Solving 9 Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations 9 A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems 11 1.4 Measurement in Scientific Study 13 General Features of SI Units 13 Some Important SI Units in Chemistry 14 1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement:Significant Figures 21 Determining Which Digits AreSignificant 22 Significant Figures in Calculations 22 Precision, Accuracy, and InstrumentCalibration 24 For Review and Reference 25 Problems 27 2 CHAPTER The Components of Matter 31 2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview 32 2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter 34 Mass Conservation 34 Definite Composition 34 Multiple Proportions 35 2.3 Dalton?s Atomic Theory 36 Postulates of the Atomic Theory 36 How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws 37 2.4 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model 37 Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties 37 Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 39 2.5 The Atomic Theory Today 41 Structure of the Atom 41 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol 42 Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements 42 2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 45 2.7 Compounds: Introduction to Bonding 47 The Formation of Ionic Compounds 48 The Formation of Covalent Compounds 50 2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 51 Types of Chemical Formulas 51 Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds 52 Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds 57 Naming Alkanes 58 Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas 58 Picturing Molecules 60 2.9 Classification of Mixtures 60 For Review and Reference 62 Problems 63 3 CHAPTER Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 69 3.1 The Mole 70 Defining the Mole 70 Molar Mass 72 Interconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities 73 Mass Percent from the Chemical Formula 75 3.2 Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound 77 Empirical Formulas 77 Molecular Formulas 78 3.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 82 3.4 Calculating Amounts of Reactant and Product 87 Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios from theBalanced Equation 87 Chemical Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant 90 Chemical Reactions in Practice: Theoretical, Actual, andPercent Yields 93 3.5 Fundamentals of Solution Stoichiometry 95 Expressing Concentration in Terms of Molarity 95 Mole-Mass-Number Conversions InvolvingSolutions 95 Dilution of Molar Solutions 96 Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions in Solution 98 For Review and Reference 100 Problems 102 4 CHAPTER The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 108 4.1 The Role of Water as a Solvent 109 The Polar Nature of Water 109 Ionic Compounds in Water 109 Covalent Compounds in Water 112 4.2 Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions 113 4.3 Precipitation Reactions 115 The Key Event: Formation of a Solid fromDissolved Ions 115 Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form 116 4.4 Acid-Base Reactions 117 The Key Event: Formation of H2O from H1 and OH2 118 Acid-Base Titrations 119 Proton Transfer: A Closer Look at Acid-BaseReactions 121 4.5 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox)Reactions 123 The Key Event: Movement of ElectronsBetween Reactants 123 Some Essential Redox Terminology 124 Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor theMovement of Electron Charge 124 4.6 Elements in Redox Reactions 126 Combining Two Elements 127 Combining Compound and Element 127 Decomposing Compounds into Elements 127 Displacing One Element by Another; Activity Series 128 Combustion Reactions 130 For Review and Reference 131 Problems 132 5 CHAPTER Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 138 5.1 An Overview of the Physical States of Matter 139 5.2 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 140 Measuring Atmospheric Pressure 141 Units of Pressure 141 5.3 The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations 143 The Relationship Between Volume and Pressure:Boyle?s Law 143 The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature:Charles?s Law 144 The Relationship Between Volume and Amount:Avogadro?s Law 146 Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions 147 The Ideal Gas Law 148 Solving Gas Law Problems 149 5.4 Further Applications of the Ideal Gas Law 152 The Density of a Gas 153 The Molar Mass of a Gas 154 The Partial Pressure of a Gas in a Mixture of Gases 155 5.5 The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry 158 5.6 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior 160 How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws 160 Effusion and Diffusion 164 5.7 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior 165 Effects of Extreme Conditions on Gas Behavior 166 The van der Waals Equation: The Ideal Gas Law Redesigned 168 For Review and Reference 168 Problems 170 6 CHAPTER Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 177 6.1 Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion 178 The System and Its Surroundings 178 Energy Flow to and from a System 178 Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy Transfer 179 The Law of Energy Conservation 181 Units of Energy 182 State Functions and the Path Independence of theEnergy Change 183 6.2 Enthalpy: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change 184 The Meaning of Enthalpy 185 Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 185 6.3 Calorimetry: Laboratory Measurement of Heats of Reaction 187 Specific Heat Capacity 187 The Practice of Calorimetry 188 6.4 Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations 191 6.5 Hess?s Law of Heat Summation 192 6.6 Standard Heats of Reaction (DH8rxn) 194 Formation Equations and Their Standard EnthalpyChanges 194 Determining DH8rxn from DH8f Values of Reactants andProducts 195 Fossil Fuels and Climate Change 197 For Review and Reference 198 Problems 200 7 CHAPTER Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 205 7.1 The Nature of Light 206 The Wave Nature of Light 206 The Particle Nature of Light 210 7.2 Atomic Spectra 212 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 213 The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom 215 Spectral Analysis in the Laboratory 216 7.3 The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy 218 The Wave Nature of Electrons and the ParticleNature of Photons 218 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 221 7.4 The Quantum-Mechanical Modelof the Atom 221 The Atomic Orbital and the ProbableLocation of the Electron 221 Quantum Numbers of an AtomicOrbital 223 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 226 The Special Case of the Hydrogen Atom 230 For Review and Reference 230 Problems 231 8 CHAPTER Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 235 8.1 Development of the Periodic Table 236 8.2 Characteristics of Many-Electron Atoms 236 The Electron-Spin Quantum Number 237 The Exclusion Principle 237 Electrostatic Effects and Energy-Level Splitting 238 8.3 The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table 240 Building Up Periods 1 and 2 240 Building Up Period 3 242 Electron Configurations Within Groups 243 The First d-Orbital Transition Series: Building Up Period 4 244 General Principles of Electron Configurations 245 Unusual Configurations: Transition and Inner Transition Elements 247 8.4 Trends in Three Key Atomic Properties 249 Trends in Atomic Size 249 Trends in Ionization Energy 252 Trends in Electron Affinity 255 8.5 Atomic Structure and Chemical Reactivity 257 Trends in Metallic Behavior 257 Properties of Monatomic Ions 258 For Review and Reference 264 Problems 265 9 CHAPTER Models of Chemical Bonding 268 9.1 Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds 269 The Three Types of Chemical Bonding 269 Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols: Depicting Atoms inChemical Bonding 271 9.2 The Ionic Bonding Model 272 Energy Considerations in Ionic Bonding: The Importance ofLattice Energy 273 Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy 274 How the Model Explains the Properties of Ionic Compounds 275 9.3 The Covalent Bonding Model 277 The Formation of a Covalent Bond 277 Properties of a Covalent Bond: Bond Energy and Bond Length 279 How the Model Explains the Properties of Covalent Substances 281 9.4 Bond Energy and Chemical Change 283 Changes in Bond Strength: Where Does DH8rxn Come From? 283 Using Bond Energies to Calculate DH8rxn 283 Relative Bond Strengths in Fuels and Foods 286 9.5 Between the Extremes: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 287 Electronegativity 287 Polar Covalent Bonds and Bond Polarity 288 The Partial Ionic Character of Polar Covalent Bonds 289 The Continuum of Bonding Across a Period 290 For Review and Reference 291 Problems 292 10 CHAPTER The Shapes of Molecules 296 10.1 Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures 297 Using the Octet Rule to Write Lewis Structures 297 Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair Bonding 300 Formal Charge: Selecting the Most Important ResonanceStructure 302 Lewis Structures for Exceptions to the Octet Rule 303 10.2 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory and Molecular Shape 306 Electron-Group Arrangements and Molecular Shapes 307 The Molecular Shape with Two Electron Groups (LinearArrangement) 308 Molecular Shapes with Three Electron Groups (Trigonal PlanarArrangement) 308 Molecular Shapes with Four Electron Groups (TetrahedralArrangement) 309 Molecular Shapes with Five Electron Groups (Trigonal BipyramidalArrangement) 311 Molecular Shapes with Six Electron Groups (OctahedralArrangement) 312 Using VSEPR Theory to Determine Molecular Shape 312 Molecular Shapes with More Than One Central Atom 314 10.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity 315 For Review and Reference 317 Problems 319 11 CHAPTER Theories of Covalent Bonding 323 11.1 Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital Hybridization 324 The Central Themes of VB Theory 324 Types of Hybrid Orbitals 325 11.2 The Mode of Orbital Overlap and the Types ofCovalent Bonds 331 Orbital Overlap in Single and Multiple Bonds 331 Mode of Overlap and Molecular Properties 332 11.3 Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory andElectron Delocalization 334 The Central Themes of MO Theory 335 Homonuclear Diatomic Moleculesof the Period 2 Elements 337 For Review and Reference 342 Problems 344 12 CHAPTER Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 347 12.1 An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes 348 12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes 351 Heat Involved in Phase Changes: A Kinetic-Molecular Approach 351 The Equilibrium Nature of Phase Changes 353 Phase Diagrams: Effect of Pressure and Temperature onPhysical State 356 12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces 358 Ion-Dipole Forces 360 Dipole-Dipole Forces 360 The Hydrogen Bond 361 Polarizability and Charge-Induced Dipole Forces 362 Dispersion (London) Forces 363 12.4 Properties of the Liquid State 365 Surface Tension 365 Capillarity 366 Viscosity 367 12.5 The Uniqueness of Water 367 Solvent Properties of Water 368 Thermal Properties of Water 368 Surface Properties of Water 368 The Density of Solid and Liquid Water 368 12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding 369 Structural Features of Solids 369 Types and Properties of Crystalline Solids 376 Amorphous Solids 379 Bonding in Solids 380 For Review and Reference 383 Problems 384 13 CHAPTER The Properties of Solutions 389 13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces andPredicting Solubility 390 Intermolecular Forces in Solution 391 Liquid Solutions and the Role of Molecular Polarity 392 Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions 395 13.2 Why Substances Dissolve: Understanding the SolutionProcess 395 Heats of Solution and Solution Cycles 396 Heats of Hydration: Ionic Solids in Water 397 The Solution Process and the Change in Entropy 398 13.3 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process 399 Effect of Temperature on Solubility 400 Effect of Pressure on Solubility 401 13.4 Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration 402 Molarity and Molality 402 Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution 404 Interconverting Concentration Terms 405 13.5 Colligative Properties of Solutions 407 Colligative Properties of Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 407 Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute Molar Mass 412 Colligative Properties of Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions 413 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions 414 For Review and Reference 416 Problems 418 14 CHAPTER The Main-Group Elements: Applying Principles of Bondingand Structure 423 14.1 Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom 424 Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry 424 14.2 Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals 425 The Unusual Physical Properties of the Alkali Metals 425 The High Reactivity of the Alkali Metals 425 The Anomalous Behavior of Period 2 Members 427 14.3 Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals 428 How Do the Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earthand Alkali Metals Compare? 428 How Do the Chemical Properties of the Alkaline Earth andAlkali Metals Compare? 428 Diagonal Relationships 428 Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 1A(1), 2A(2),and 3A(13) 430 14.4 Group 3A(13): The Boron Family 430 How Do Transition Elements Influence Group 3A(13)Properties? 430 What New Features Appear in the Chemical Properties ofGroup 3A(13)? 430 Highlights of Boron Chemistry 432 14.5 Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family 433 How Does the Bonding in an Element Affect PhysicalProperties? 433 How Does the Type of Bonding Change in Group 4A(14)Compounds? 435 Highlights of Carbon Chemistry 436 Highlights of Silicon Chemistry 437 Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 3A(13), 4A(14),and 5A(15) 438 14.6 Group 5A(15): The NitrogenFamily 438 The Wide Range of Physical andChemical Behavior inGroup 5A(15) 438 Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry 440 Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry: Oxides and Oxoacids 443 14.7 Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family 443 How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen FamiliesCompare Physically? 445 How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen FamiliesCompare Chemically? 445 Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry 446 Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry: Oxides and Oxoacids 446 Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 5A(15), 6A(16),and 7A(17) 447 14.8 Group 7A(17): The Halogens 447 What Accounts for the Regular Changes in the Halogens?Physical Properties? 447 Why Are the Halogens So Reactive? 447 Highlights of Halogen Chemistry 449 14.9 Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases 450 How Can Noble Gases Form Compounds? 450 Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 7A(17), 8A(18),and 1A(1) 452 For Review and Reference 452 Problems 453 15 CHAPTER Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 457 15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of Organic Molecules 458 The Structural Complexity of Organic Molecules 458 The Chemical Diversity of Organic Molecules 459 15.2 The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons 460 Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen Skins 460 Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only Single Bonds 463 Constitutional Isomerism and the Physical Propertiesof Alkanes 465 Chiral Molecules and Optical Isomerism 467 Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds 468 Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds 469 Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic Molecules withDelocalized p Electrons 471 15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions 472 15.4 Properties and Reactivities of CommonFunctional Groups 473 Functional Groups with Only Single Bonds 475 Functional Groups with Double Bonds 478 Functional Groups with Both Single and Double Bonds 479 Functional Groups with Triple Bonds 482 15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: SyntheticMacromolecules 483 Addition Polymers 483 Condensation Polymers 485 15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II:Biological Macromolecules 486 Sugars and Polysaccharides 486 Amino Acids and Proteins 487 Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids 490 For Review and Reference 492 Problems 493 16 CHAPTER Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 498 16.1 Factors That Influence Reaction Rate 499 16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate 500 Average, Instantaneous, and Initial Reaction Rates 501 Expressing Rate in Terms of Reactant and ProductConcentrations 503 16.3 The Rate Law and Its Components 505 Reaction Order Terminology 506 Determining Reaction Orders Experimentally 507 Determining the Rate Constant 509 16.4 Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time 510 Integrated Rate Laws for First-, Second-, and Zero-OrderReactions 510 Determining the Reaction Order from the Integrated Rate Law 512 Reaction Half-Life 513 16.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate 516 16.6 Explaining the Effects ofConcentration and Temperature 518 Collision Theory: Basis of theRate Law 518 Transition State Theory: MolecularNature of the Activated Complex 520 16.7 Reaction Mechanisms: Steps in the Overall Reaction 523 Elementary Reactions and Molecularity 524 The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction Mechanism 525 Correlating the Mechanism with the Rate Law 526 16.8 Catalysis: Speeding Up a Chemical Reaction 529 Homogeneous Catalysis 530 Heterogeneous Catalysis 530 Catalysis in Nature 531 For Review and Reference 533 Problems 535 17 CHAPTER Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 540 17.1 The Equilibrium State and the Equilibrium Constant 541 17.2 The Reaction Quotient and the Equilibrium Constant 543 Writing the Reaction Quotient 545 Variations in the Form of the Reaction Quotient 546 17.3 Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms: Relation Between Kc and Kp 549 17.4 Reaction Direction: Comparing Q and K 550 17.5 How to Solve Equilibrium Problems 551 Using Quantities to Determine the Equilibrium Constant 552 Using the Equilibrium Constant to Determine Quantities 554 Mixtures of Reactants and Products: Determining ReactionDirection 559 17.6 Reaction Conditions and the Equilibrium State:Le Ch¿telier?s Principle 561 The Effect of a Change in Concentration 561 The Effect of a Change in Pressure (Volume) 564 The Effect of a Change in Temperature 566 The Lack of Effect of a Catalyst 567 The Industrial Production of Ammonia 569 For Review and Reference 570 Problems 571 18 CHAPTER Acid-Base Equilibria 577 18.1 Acids and Bases in Water 578 Release of H1 or OH2 and the Classical Acid-Base Definition 578 Variation in Acid Strength: The Acid-Dissociation Constant (Ka) 579 Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 581 18.2 Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale 583 The Equilibrium Nature of Autoionization: The Ion-Product Constant for Water (Kw) 583 Expressing the Hydronium Ion Concentration: The pH Scale 584 18.3 Proton Transfer and the Br?nsted-Lowry Acid-BaseDefinition 587 The Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 588 Relative Acid-Base Strength and the Net Direction ofReaction 590 18.4 Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid Equilibria 591 Finding Ka Given Concentrations 592 Finding Concentrations Given Ka 594 The Effect of Concentration on the Extent of Acid Dissociation 595 The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids 595 18.5 Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids 596 Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia and the Amines 596 Anions of Weak Acids as Weak Bases 598 The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 599 18.6 Molecular Properties and Acid Strength 600 Trends in Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides 600 Trends in Acid Strength of Oxoacids 601 Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions 602 18.7 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions 603 Salts That Yield Neutral Solutions 603 Salts That Yield Acidic Solutions 603 Salts That Yield Basic Solutions 604 Salts of Weakly Acidic Cations and Weakly Basic Anions 605 18.8 Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition 606 Molecules as Lewis Acids 607 Metal Cations as Lewis Acids 607 For Review and Reference 609 Problems 610 19 CHAPTER Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 615 19.1 Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffer Systems 616 How a Buffer Works: The Common-Ion Effect 617 The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation 621 Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range 621 Preparing a Buffer 623 19.2 Acid-Base Titration Curves 624 Monitoring pH with Acid-Base Indicators 624 Strong Acid?Strong Base Titration Curves 626 Weak Acid?Strong Base Titration Curves 628 Weak Base?Strong Acid Titration Curves 631 19.3 Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds 632 The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the Solubility-ProductConstant (Ksp) 632 Calculations Involving the Solubility-Product Constant 634 The Effect of a Common Ion onSolubility 636 The Effect of pH on Solubility 637 Predicting the Formation of aPrecipitate: Qsp vs. Ksp 638 Applying Ionic Equilibria to theAcid-Rain Problem 639 19.4 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 641 Formation of Complex Ions 641 Complex Ions and the Solubility of Precipitates 643 For Review and Reference 644 Problems 646 20 CHAPTER Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Directionof Chemical Reactions 650 20.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics:Predicting Spontaneous Change 651 Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics 651 The Sign of DH Cannot Predict Spontaneous Change 652 Freedom of Particle Motion and Dispersal of Particle Energy 653 Entropy and the Number of Microstates 653 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 656 Standard Molar Entropies and the Third Law 657 20.2 Calculating the Change in Entropy of a Reaction 661 Entropy Changes in the System: Standard Entropy ofReaction (DS8rxn) 661 Entropy Changes in the Surroundings: The Other Partof the Total 662 The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium State 664 Spontaneous Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:A Summary 665 20.3 Entropy, Free Energy, and Work 666 Free Energy Change and Reaction Spontaneity 666 Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes 667 DG and the Work a System Can Do 668 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Spontaneity 669 Coupling of Reactions to Drive a Nonspontaneous Change 671 20.4 Free Energy, Equilibrium, and Reaction Direction 672 For Review and Reference 676 Problems 677 21 CHAPTER Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 681 21.1 Redox Reactions and Electrochemical Cells 682 A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction Concepts 682 Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Reactions 683 An Overview of Electrochemical Cells 686 21.2 Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate Electrical Energy 687 Construction and Operation of a Voltaic Cell 688 Notation for a Voltaic Cell 690 21.3 Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic Cell 692 Standard Cell Potentials 692 Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 695 21.4 Free Energy and Electrical Work 700 Standard Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant 700 The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential 703 Changes in Potential During Cell Operation 704 Concentration Cells 705 21.5 Electrochemical Processes in Batteries 708 Primary (Nonrechargeable) Batteries 709 Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries 710 Fuel Cells 711 21.6 Corrosion: A Case of Environmental Electrochemistry 713 The Corrosion of Iron 713 Protecting Against the Corrosion of Iron 714 21.7 Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical Energy to Drive Nonspontaneous Reactions 715 Construction and Operation of an Electrolytic Cell 716 Predicting the Products of Electrolysis 717 Industrial Electrochemistry: Purifying Copper and IsolatingAluminum 721 The Stoichiometry of Electrolysis: The Relation Between Amounts of Charge and Product 724 For Review and Reference 726 Problems 728 22 CHAPTER The Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds 734 22.1 Properties of the Transition Elements 735 Electron Configurations of the Transition Metals and Their Ions 736 Atomic and Physical Properties of the Transition Elements 737 Chemical Properties of the Transition Metals 739 22.2 Coordination Compounds 741 Complex Ions: Coordination Numbers, Geometries,and Ligands 742 Formulas and Names of Coordination Compounds 743 Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 745 22.3 Theoretical Basis for the Bondingand Properties of Complexes 748 Application of Valence Bond Theory toComplex Ions 748 Crystal Field Theory 750 Transition Metal Complexes inBiological Systems 756 For Review and Reference 758 Problems 759 23 CHAPTER Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications 762 23.1 Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Stability 763 The Components of the Nucleus: Terms and Notation 763 Types of Radioactive Emissions and Decay; BalancingNuclear Equations 764 Nuclear Stability and the Mode of Decay 767 23.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 770 The Rate of Radioactive Decay 770 Radioisotopic Dating 773 24.3 Nuclear Transmutation: Induced Changes in Nuclei 774 23.4 The Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter 776 The Effects of Radioactive Emissions: Excitation andIonization 776 Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Living Matter 777 23.5 Applications of Radioisotopes 779 Radioactive Tracers: Applications of Nonionizing Radiation 779 Applications of Ionizing Radiation 780 23.6 The Interconversion of Mass and Energy 781 The Mass Defect 782 Nuclear Binding Energy 783 23.7 Applications of Fission and Fusion 785 The Process of Nuclear Fission 785 The Promise of Nuclear Fusion 788 For Review and Reference 788 Problems 790 Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1 Manipulating Logarithms A-1 Using Exponential (Scientific) Notation A-2 Solving Quadratic Equations A-3 Graphing Data in the Form of a Straight Line A-4 Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances at 298 K A-5 Appendix C Equilibrium Constants at 298 K A-8 Dissociation (Ionization) Constants (Ka) of Selected Acids A-8 Dissociation (Ionization) Constants (Kb) of Selected AmineBases A-11 Dissociation (Ionization) Constants (Ka) of Some Hydrated Metal Ions A-12 Formation Constants (Kf) of Some Complex Ions A-12 Solubility Product Constants (Ksp) of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds A-13 Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentialsat 298 K A-14 Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems A-15 Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1
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