This is completed downloadable of Electric Power Distribution Engineering 3rd Gonen Solution Manual

Product Details:

ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1482207001
ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1482207002
Author: Turan Gönen

A quick scan of any bookstore, library, or online bookseller will produce a multitude of books covering power systems. However, few, if any, are totally devoted to power distribution engineering, and none of them are true textbooks. Filling this vacuum in the power system engineering literature, Electric Power Distribution System Engineering broke new ground.

Written in the classic, self-learning style of the original, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, Third Edition is updated and expanded with:

Over 180 detailed numerical examples
More than 170 end-of-chapter problems
New MATLAB^® applications

The Third Edition also features new chapters on:

Distributed generation
Renewable energy (e.g., wind and solar energies)
Modern energy storage systems
Smart grids and their applications

Designed specifically for junior- or senior-level electrical engineering courses, the book covers all aspects of distribution engineering from basic system planning and concepts through distribution system protection and reliability. Drawing on decades of experience to provide a text that is as attractive to students as it is useful to professors and practicing engineers, the author demonstrates how to design, analyze, and perform modern distribution system engineering. He takes special care to cover industry terms and symbols, providing a glossary and clearly defining each term when it is introduced. The discussion of distribution planning and design considerations goes beyond the usual analytical and qualitative analysis to emphasize the economical explication and overall impact of the distribution design considerations discussed.

Table of Content:

1 Distribution System Planning and Automation
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING
FIGURE 1.1 Typical investment trends in electric utility plants in service.
FIGURE 1.2 Typical trends in electric utility plants in service by percent of sector.
FIGURE 1.3 Typical ratio of maintenance expenses to plant in service for each utility sector. The data are for privately owned class A and class B electric utilities.
1.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SYSTEM PLANNING
1.3.1 Load Forecasting
FIGURE 1.4 Factors affecting load forecast.
1.3.2 Substation Expansion
FIGURE 1.5 Factors affecting substation expansion.
1.3.3 Substation Site Selection
FIGURE 1.6 Factors affecting substation siting.
FIGURE 1.7 Substation site selection procedure.
1.3.4 Other Factors
FIGURE 1.8 Factors affecting total cost of the distribution system expansion.
1.4 PRESENT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING TECHNIQUES
FIGURE 1.9 A block diagram of a typical distribution system planning process.
1.5 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING MODELS
1.5.1 Computer Applications
1.5.2 New Expansion Planning
1.5.3 Augmentation and Upgrades
1.5.4 Operational Planning
1.5.5 Benefits of Optimization Applications
1.6 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING IN THE FUTURE
1.6.1 Economic Factors
1.6.2 Demographic Factors
1.6.3 Technological Factors
1.7 FUTURE NATURE OF DISTRIBUTION PLANNING
1.7.1 Increasing Importance of Good Planning
1.7.2 Impacts of Load Management (or Demand-Side Management)
1.7.3 Cost/Benefit Ratio for Innovation
1.7.4 New Planning Tools
1.8 CENTRAL ROLE OF THE COMPUTER IN DISTRIBUTION PLANNING
1.8.1 System Approach
1.8.2 Database Concept
FIGURE 1.10 A schematic view of a distribution planning system.
1.8.3 New Automated Tools
1.9 IMPACT OF DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION
1.10 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AUTOMATION
TABLE 1.1 Comparison of DSG Devices
TABLE 1.2 Interaction between DSG Factors and Energy Management System Functions
TABLE 1.3 Profile of the Electric Utility Industry in the United States in the Year 2000
FIGURE 1.11 In the future, small dispersed-energy-storage-and-generation units attached to a customer’s home, a power distribution feeder, or a substation would require an increasing amount of automation and control.
FIGURE 1.12 Monitoring and controlling of an electric power system.
1.10.1 Distribution Automation and Control Functions
TABLE 1.4 Automated Distribution Functions Correlated with Locations
1.10.2 Level of Penetration of Distribution Automation
TABLE 1.5 Functional Scope of Power Distribution Automation System
FIGURE 1.13 Applications of two-way radio communications.
FIGURE 1.14 The research system consisted of two minicomputers with distributed high-speed data acquisition processing units at the La Grange Park Substation.
FIGURE 1.15 Substation control and protection system that features a common signal bus (center lines) to control recording, comparison, and follow-up actions (right). Critical processes are shaded.
FIGURE 1.16 The integrated distribution control and protection system of EPRI.
1.10.3 Alternatives of Communication Systems
TABLE 1.6 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of the Power-Line, Radio, and Telephone Carriers
FIGURE 1.17 A control hierarchy envisaged for future utilities.
1.11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
2 Load Characteristics
2.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
Example 2.1
FIGURE 2.1 A daily demand variation curve.
FIGURE 2.2 A load duration curve.
TABLE 2.1 Idealized Load Data for the NL&NP’s Primary Feeder
FIGURE 2.3 The daily load curve for Example 2.1.
FIGURE 2.4 Development of aggregate load curves for winter peak period. Miscellaneous load includes street lighting and sales to other agencies. Dashed curve shown on system load diagram is actual system generation sent out. Solid curve is based on group load study data.
Example 2.2
Example 2.3
FIGURE 2.5 Illustration of load connected to a distribution transformer.
Example 2.4
Example 2.5
FIGURE 2.6 NL&NP’s riverside distribution substation.
FIGURE 2.7 Daily load curves of a substation transformer.
Example 2.6
2.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND LOSS FACTORS
FIGURE 2.8 A feeder with a variable load.
FIGURE 2.9 An arbitrary and ideal load curve.
FIGURE 2.10 Loss factor curves as a function of load factor.
Example 2.7
Example 2.8
FIGURE 2.11 A monthly load curve.
Example 2.9
FIGURE 2.12 The new load curve after the new load addition.
Example 2.10
Example 2.11
2.3 MAXIMUM DIVERSIFIED DEMAND
Example 2.12
TABLE 2.2 Hourly Variation Factors
FIGURE 2.13 Maximum diversified 30 min demand characteristics of various residential loads: A, clothes dryer; B, off-peak water heater, “off-peak” load; C, water heater, uncontrolled, interlocked elements; D, range; E, lighting and miscellaneous appliances; F, 0.5-hp room coolers; G, off-peak water heater, “on-peak” load, upper element uncontrolled; H, oil burner; I, home freezer; J, refrigerator; K, central air-conditioning, including heat-pump cooling, 5-hp heat pump (4-ton air conditioner); L, house heating, including heat-pump-heating-connected load of 15 kW unit-type resistance heating or 5 hp heat pump.
2.4 LOAD FORECASTING
TABLE 2.3 MATLAB® Demand-Forecasting Computer Program
2.4.1 Box—Jenkins Methodology
2.4.2 Small-Area Load Forecasting
2.4.3 Spatial Load Forecasting
FIGURE 2.14 Spatial load forecasting.
Example 2.13
TABLE 2.4 Demand Forecasting MATLAB Program
Example 2.14
FIGURE 2.15 The answers for the parts (a) and (b).
2.5 LOAD MANAGEMENT
Example 2.15
2.6 RATE STRUCTURE
2.6.1 Customer Billing
FIGURE 2.16 A customer’s monthly electric bill.
TABLE 2.5 Typical Energy Rate Schedule for Commercial Users
2.6.2 Fuel Cost Adjustment
Example 2.16
FIGURE 2.17 Two customers connected to a primary line of the NL&NP.
2.7 ELECTRIC METER TYPES
FIGURE 2.18 Single-phase electromechanical watthour meter.
FIGURE 2.19 Basic parts of a single-phase electromechanical watthour meter.
FIGURE 2.20 Diagram of a typical motor and magnetic retarding system for a single-phase electromechanical watthour meter.
FIGURE 2.21 Typical polyphase (electromechanical) watthour meters: (a) self-contained meter (socket-connected cyclometer type). (b) transformer-rated meter (bottom-connected pointer type).
FIGURE 2.22 Single-phase, two-wire electromechanical watthour meter connected to a high-voltage circuit through current and potential transformers.
FIGURE 2.23 The register of an electromechanical demand meter for large customers.
2.7.1 Electronic (or Digital) Meters
2.7.2 Reading Electric Meters
FIGURE 2.24 A conventional dial-type register of electromechanical meter.
FIGURE 2.25 A cyclometer-type register.
2.7.3 Instantaneous Load Measurements Using Electromechanical Watthour Meters
Example 2.17
Example 2.18
Example 2.19
PROBLEMS
TABLE P.2.1 Typical Summer-Day Load, in kW
REFERENCES
3 Application of Distribution Transformers
3.1 INTRODUCTION
TABLE 3.1 Standard Transformer Kilovoltamperes and Voltages
TABLE 3.2 Designation of Voltage Ratings for Single- and Three-Phase Distribution Transformers
3.2 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
FIGURE 3.1 Overhead pole-mounted distribution transformers: (a) single-phase completely self-protecting (or conventional) and (b) three phase.
FIGURE 3.2 Network transformer.
FIGURE 3.3 Dry-type pole-mounted resibloc transformer.
FIGURE 3.4 Dry-type resibloc network transformer.
FIGURE 3.5 Outdoor three-phase dry-type resibloc transformer.
FIGURE 3.6 Pad-mount-type single-phase resibloc transformer.
FIGURE 3.7 Pad-mount three-phase resibloc transformer.
FIGURE 3.8 An arch flash-resistant dry-type three-phase resibloc transformer.
FIGURE 3.9 TRIDRY dry-type resibloc transformer.
FIGURE 3.10 VPI dry resibloc transformer.
FIGURE 3.11 Pad-mount installation of three-phase resibloc transformer.
FIGURE 3.12 Various types of transformer: (a) a typical secondary unit substation transformer, (b) a typical single-phase pole-type tansformer, (c) a single-phase pad-mounted transformer, and (d) three-phase pad-mounted transformer.
FIGURE 3.13 Various types of transformers: (a) three-phase sub-surface-vault type transformer, (b) a typical mobile transformer, and (c) a typical power transformer.
TABLE 3.3 Electrical Characteristics of Typical Single-Phase Distribution Transformers
TABLE 3.4 Electrical Characteristics of Typical Three-Phase Pad-Mounted Transformers
3.3 REGULATION
3.4 TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
FIGURE 3.14 Transformer efficiency chart applicable only to the unity PF condition. To obtain the efficiency at a given load, lay a straightedge across the iron and copper loss values and read the efficiency at the point where the straightedge cuts the required load ordinate.
3.5 TERMINAL OR LEAD MARKINGS
FIGURE 3.15 Transformer efficiency chart applicable only to the unity PF condition. To obtain the efficiency at a given load, lay a straightedge across the iron and copper loss values and read the efficiency at the point where the straightedge cuts the required load ordinate.
FIGURE 3.16 Cost of electric energy.
FIGURE 3.17 Annual cost per unit load vs. load level.
3.6 TRANSFORMER POLARITY
FIGURE 3.18 Additive and subtractive polarity connections: (a) subtractive polarity and (b) additive polarity.
FIGURE 3.19 Polarity test: (a) subtractive polarity and (b) additive polarity.
3.7 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER LOADING GUIDES
3.8 EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF A TRANSFORMER
FIGURE 3.20 Basic circuit of a practical transformer.
FIGURE 3.21 Equivalent circuit of a loaded transformer.
FIGURE 3.22 Phasor diagram corresponding to the excitation current components at no load.
FIGURE 3.23 Equivalent circuit with the referred secondary values.
FIGURE 3.24 Simplified equivalent circuit assuming negligible excitation current.
FIGURE 3.25 Simplified equivalent circuit for a large-sized power transformer.
3.9 SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
3.9.1 General
FIGURE 3.26 Single-phase transformer connections.
FIGURE 3.27 Single-phase transformer connections.
3.9.2 Single-Phase Transformer Paralleling
FIGURE 3.28 Single-phase transformer paralleling.
FIGURE 3.29 Parallel operation of two single-phase transformers.
FIGURE 3.30 Two transformers connected in parallel and feeding a load.
FIGURE 3.31 Equivalent circuit.
Example 3.1
FIGURE 3.32 An equivalent circuit of a single-phase transformer with three-wire secondary.
Example 3.2
FIGURE 3.33 Secondary line-to-neutral fault.
FIGURE 3.34 Secondary line-to-line fault.
Example 3.3
Example 3.4
3.10 THREE-PHASE CONNECTIONS
3.10.1 Δ–Δ Transformer Connection
FIGURE 3.35 Eco-dry three-phase (RESIBLOC) transformer.
FIGURE 3.36 Air-to-water cooled RESIBLOC three-phase transformer.
FIGURE 3.37 Eco-dry (RESIBLOC) three-phase transformer.
FIGURE 3.38 Vacuum cast dry-type transformer.
FIGURE 3.39 Δ–Δ transformer bank connection with 0° angular displacement.
FIGURE 3.40 Δ–Δ transformer bank connection with 180° angular displacement.
FIGURE 3.41 Δ–Δ transformer bank connection to provide 120/208/240 V three-phase four-wire service.
TABLE 3.5 Permissible Percent Loading on Odd and Like Transformers as a Function of the Z1/Z2 Ratio
FIGURE 3.42 Equivalent circuit of a Δ–Δ-connected transformer bank.
Example 3.5
FIGURE 3.43 For Example 3.5.
3.10.2 Open-Δ Open-Δ Transformer Connection
FIGURE 3.44 Three-phase four-wire open-delta connection.
FIGURE 3.45 Three-phase three-wire open-delta connection.
TABLE 3.6 Effects of the Load Power Factor on the Transformer Power Factors
3.10.3 Y–Y Transformer Connection
FIGURE 3.46 Y–Y connection to provide a 120/208 V grounded-wye three-phase four-wire multigrounded service.
3.10.4 Y–Δ Transformer Connection
FIGURE 3.47 Y–Δ connection to provide a 120/208/240 V three-phase four-wire secondary service.
FIGURE 3.48 Y–Δ connection to provide a 240 V three-phase three-wire secondary service.
3.10.5 Open-Y Open-Δ Transformer Connection
Example 3.6
FIGURE 3.49 Open-wye open-delta connection.
FIGURE 3.50 Open-wye open-delta connection for Example 3.6.
3.10.6 Δ–Y Transformer Connection
FIGURE 3.51 Δ–Y connection with 30° angular displacement.
FIGURE 3.52 Δ–Y connection with 210° angular displacement.
3.11 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
FIGURE 3.53 Three-phase transformer connected in delta–delta.
FIGURE 3.54 Three-phase transformer connected in open-delta.
FIGURE 3.55 Three-phase transformer connected in Y–Δ.
FIGURE 3.56 Three-phase transformer connected in open-wye open-delta.
FIGURE 3.57 Three-phase transformer connected in Y–Y.
3.12 T OR SCOTT CONNECTION
FIGURE 3.58 T or Scott connection for three-phase to two-phase, three-wire transformation.
FIGURE 3.59 T or Scott connection for three-phase to two-phase, four-wire transformation.
FIGURE 3.60 T or Scott connection for three-phase to two-phase, five-wire transformation.
Example 3.7
FIGURE 3.61 For Example 3.7.
FIGURE 3.62 For Example 3.7.
Example 3.8
FIGURE 3.63 A particular T–T connection.
FIGURE 3.64 The required low-voltage phasor diagram.
Example 3.9
FIGURE 3.65 Phasor diagram for Example 3.9.
Example 3.10
Example 3.11
FIGURE 3.66 Two single-phase transformers connected in open-wye and open-delta.
FIGURE 3.67 The low-voltage phasor diagram for Example 3.11.
3.13 AUTOTRANSFORMER
FIGURE 3.68 Wiring diagram of a single-phase autotransformer.
FIGURE 3.69 Single-phase autotransformer.
FIGURE 3.70 Three-phase autotransformer.
3.14 BOOSTER TRANSFORMERS
FIGURE 3.71 Single-phase booster transformer connection: (a) for 5% boost and (b) for 10% boost.
FIGURE 3.72 Three-phase three-wire booster transformer connection using two single-phase booster transformers.
3.15 AMORPHOUS METAL DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
FIGURE 3.73 Three-phase three-wire booster transformer connection using three single-phase booster transformers.
3.16 NATURE OF ZERO-SEQUENCE CURRENTS
FIGURE 3.74 A three-phase system: (a) with four wires and wye-connected load and (b) three wires and wye- or delta-connected load.
FIGURE 3.75 For Example 3.12.
Example 3.12
FIGURE 3.76 Solutions for Example 3.12.
Example 3.13
FIGURE 3.77 Three-phase transformer connection for Example 3.12.
FIGURE 3.78 The answers for Example 3.12.
FIGURE 3.79 Δ–Y transformer bank connections for Example 3.13.
Example 3.14
Example 3.15
FIGURE 3.80 Solutions for Example 3.13.
Example 3.16
FIGURE 3.81 Three-phase transformer connections for Example 3.12.
3.17 ZIGZAG POWER TRANSFORMERS
FIGURE 3.82 The answers for Example 3.12.
FIGURE 3.83 Three-phase transformer connections for Example 3.16.
FIGURE 3.84 Solutions for Example 3.16.
3.18 GROUNDING TRANSFORMERS USED IN THE UTILITY SYSTEMS
FIGURE 3.85 Two different ways of connecting a grounding transformer to the system.
FIGURE 3.86 A Y–Δ transformer can also be used as a grounding transformer.
FIGURE 3.87 (a through d) A zigzag transformer is often used to obtain a neutral for the grounding of a Δ–Δ connected system.
3.19 PROTECTION SCHEME OF A DISTRIBUTION FEEDER CIRCUIT
FIGURE 3.88 A distribution feeder protection scheme.
PROBLEMS
FIGURE P3.1 For Problem 3.1.
FIGURE P3.3 A T–T connection.
FIGURE P3.6 For Problem 3.6.
FIGURE P3.7 For Problem 3.7.
FIGURE P3.8 For Problem 3.8.
REFERENCES
4 Design of Subtransmission Lines and Distribution Substations
4.1 INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 4.1 One-line diagram of a typical distribution system.
4.2 SUBTRANSMISSION
FIGURE 4.2 Radial-type subtransmission.
FIGURE 4.3 Improved form of radial-type subtransmission.
FIGURE 4.4 Loop-type subtransmission.
FIGURE 4.5 Grid- or network-type subtransmission.
4.2.1 Subtransmission Line Costs
4.3 DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS
FIGURE 4.6 A typical distribution substation.
FIGURE 4.7 A typical small distribution substation.
FIGURE 4.8 Overview of a modern substation.
FIGURE 4.9 Close view of typical modern distribution substation transformer.
FIGURE 4.10 Primary unit substation transformer.
FIGURE 4.11 Secondary unit substation transformer.
FIGURE 4.12 A 630 kVA, 10/0.4 kV GEAFOL solid dielectric transformer.
FIGURE 4.13 Oil distribution transformer: cutaway of a TUMERIC transformer with an oil expansion tank showing in the foreground and TUNORMA with an oil expansion tank shown in the background.
FIGURE 4.14 A 630 kVA, 10/0.4 kV GEAFOL solid dielectric transformer.
FIGURE 4.15 A 40 MVA, 110 kV ± 16%/21 kV, three-phase, core-type transformer, 5.2 m high, 9.4 m long, 3 m wide, and weighing 80 tons.
4.3.1 Substation Costs
FIGURE 4.16 A850/950/1100 MVA, 415 kV ± 11%/27 kV, three-phase, shell-type transformer, 11.3 m high, 14 m long, 5.7 m wide, and weighing (without cooling oil) 552 tons.
FIGURE 4.17 A completely assembled 910 MVA, 20.5/500 kV, three-phase, step-up transformer, about 12 m high, 11 m long, 9 m wide, and weighing 562 tons.
FIGURE 4.18 A typical core and coil assembly of a three-phase, core-type, power transformer.
Example 4.1
4.4 SUBSTATION BUS SCHEMES
4.5 SUBSTATION LOCATION
FIGURE 4.19 A typical single bus scheme.
FIGURE 4.20 A typical double bus–double breaker scheme.
FIGURE 4.21 A typical main-and-transfer bus scheme.
FIGURE 4.22 A typical double bus–single breaker scheme.
FIGURE 4.23 A typical ring bus scheme.
FIGURE 4.24 A typical breaker-and-a-half scheme.
4.6 RATING OF A DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION
TABLE 4.1 Summary of Comparison of Switching Schemesa
FIGURE 4.25 Square-shaped distribution substation service area.
FIGURE 4.26 The K constant for copper conductors, assuming a lagging-load power factor of 0.9.
FIGURE 4.27 Hexagonally shaped distribution substation area.
4.7 GENERAL CASE: SUBSTATION SERVICE AREA WITH n PRIMARY FEEDERS
FIGURE 4.28 Distribution substation service area served by n primary feeders.
TABLE 4.2 Application Results of Equation 4.17
4.8 COMPARISON OF THE FOUR- AND SIX-FEEDER PATTERNS
4.9 DERIVATION OF THE K CONSTANT
FIGURE 4.29 An illustration of a primary-feeder main.
FIGURE 4.30 Phasor diagram.
Example 4.2
Example 4.3
Example 4.4
FIGURE 4.31 The feeder of Example 4.2.
FIGURE 4.32 The feeder of Example 4.4.
Example 4.5
FIGURE 4.33 The feeder of Example 4.5.
Example 4.6
4.10 SUBSTATION APPLICATION CURVES
FIGURE 4.34 Distribution substation application curves for 3% voltage drop.
FIGURE 4.35 Distribution substation application curves for 6% voltage drop.
Example 4.7
TABLE 4.3 Data for Example 4.7
TABLE 4.4 Cases of Example 4.7
4.11 INTERPRETATION OF PERCENT VOLTAGE DROP FORMULA
TABLE 4.5 Illustration of the Use and Interpretation of Equation 4.85
Example 4.8
Example 4.9
FIGURE 4.36 For Example 4.9.
Example 4.10
FIGURE 4.37 Service area for Example 4.10.
Example 4.11
FIGURE 4.38 Service area for Example 4.11.
FIGURE 4.39 Linearly decreasing load for Example 4.11.
Example 4.12
4.12 CAPABILITY OF FACILITIES
4.13 SUBSTATION GROUNDING
4.13.1 Electric Shock and Its Effects on Humans
TABLE 4.6 Effect of Electric Current (mA) on Men and Women
TABLE 4.7 Resistivity of Different Soils
Example 4.13
4.13.2 Ground Resistance
TABLE 4.8 Resistivity of Different Soils
TABLE 4.9 Effect of Moisture Content on Soil Resistivity
FIGURE 4.40 Typical electric shock hazard situations: (a) touch potential; (b) its equivalent circuit; (c) step potential; (d) its equivalent circuit.
FIGURE 4.41 Possible basic shock situations.
4.13.3 Reduction of Factor Cs
FIGURE 4.42 Surface layer derating factor Cs versus thickness of surface material in m.
Example 4.14
FIGURE 4.43 Resistance of earth surrounding an electrode.
FIGURE 4.44 Variation of soil resistivity with depth for soil having uniform moisture content at all depths.
4.13.4 Soil Resistivity Measurements
4.13.4.1 Wenner Four-Pin Method
FIGURE 4.45 Approximate ground resistivity distribution in the United States.
FIGURE 4.46 The Wenner four-pin method.
4.13.4.2 Three-Pin or Driven Ground Rod Method
FIGURE 4.47 Circuit diagram for three-pin or driven ground rod method.
4.14 SUBSTATION GROUNDING
FIGURE 4.48 The relationship between asymmetrical fault current, dc decaying component, and symmetrical fault current.
4.15 GROUND CONDUCTOR SIZING FACTORS
TABLE 4.10 Material Constants of the Typical Grounding Material Used
4.16 MESH VOLTAGE DESIGN CALCULATIONS
FIGURE 4.49 The effect of the spacing (D) between conductors on Km.
FIGURE 4.50 The effect of the number of conductors (n) on the Km.
FIGURE 4.51 The relationship between the diameter of the conductor (d) and the Km.
FIGURE 4.52 The relationship between the depth of the conductor (h) and Km.
4.17 STEP VOLTAGE DESIGN CALCULATIONS
FIGURE 4.53 The relationship between the distance (D) between the conductors and the geometric factor Ks.
FIGURE 4.54 The relationship between the number of conductors (n) and the geometric factor Ks.
FIGURE 4.55 The relationship between the depth of grid conductors (h) in meter and the geometric factor Ks.
4.18 TYPES OF GROUND FAULTS
4.18.1 Line-to-Line-to-Ground Fault
4.18.2 Single Line-to-Ground Fault
4.19 GROUND POTENTIAL RISE
FIGURE 4.56 The effects of the number of grid conductors (n), without ground rods, on the ground grid resistance.
Example 4.15
FIGURE 4.57 The effects of varying the depth of burial of the grid (h) from 0.5 to 2.5 m and the number of conductors from 4 to 10[17].
FIGURE 4.58 Substation grounding design procedure block diagram.
TABLE 4.11 Initial Design Parameters
TABLE 4.12 Approximate Equivalent Impedance of Transmission Line Overhead Shield Wires and Distribution Feeder Neutrals
4.20 TRANSMISSION LINE GROUNDS
FIGURE 4.59 Two basic types of counterpoises: (a) continuous (parallel) and (b) radial.
4.21 TYPES OF GROUNDING
FIGURE 4.60 Grounding transformers used in delta-connected systems: (a) using grounded wye–delta-connected small distribution transformers or (b) using grounding autotransformers with interconnected wye or “zigzag” windings.
4.22 TRANSFORMER CLASSIFICATIONS
TABLE 4.13 Equivalent Cooling Classes
PROBLEMS
REFERENCES
5 Design Considerations of Primary Systems
5.1 INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 5.1 One-line diagram of typical primary distribution feeders.
5.2 RADIAL-TYPE PRIMARY FEEDER
FIGURE 5.2 Radial-type primary feeder.
FIGURE 5.3 Radial-type primary feeder with tie and sectionalizing switches.
5.3 LOOP-TYPE PRIMARY FEEDER
FIGURE 5.4 Radial-type primary feeder with express feeder and backfeed.
FIGURE 5.5 Radial-type phase-area feeder.
FIGURE 5.6 Loop-type primary feeder.
5.4 PRIMARY NETWORK
FIGURE 5.7 Primary network.
5.5 PRIMARY-FEEDER VOLTAGE LEVELS
FIGURE 5.8 Factors affecting primary-feeder voltage-level selection decision.
TABLE 5.1 Typical Primary Voltage Levels
FIGURE 5.9 Illustration of the voltage-square rule and the feeder distance-coverage principle as a function of feeder voltage level and a single load.
FIGURE 5.10 Feeder area-coverage principle as related to feeder voltage and a uniformly distributed load.
5.6 PRIMARY-FEEDER LOADING
FIGURE 5.11 Factors affecting feeder routing decisions.
FIGURE 5.12 Factors affecting the number of feeders.
FIGURE 5.13 Factors affecting conductor size selection.
5.7 TIE LINES
5.8 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER EXIT: RECTANGULAR-TYPE DEVELOPMENT
FIGURE 5.14 One-line diagram of typical two-substation area supply with tie lines.
FIGURE 5.15 Rectangular-type development.
FIGURE 5.16 Rectangular-type development with two transformers, type 1.
FIGURE 5.17 Rectangular-type development with two transformers, type 2.
FIGURE 5.18 Rectangular-type development with three transformers.
FIGURE 5.19 The sequence of installing additional transformers and feeders, type 1.
FIGURE 5.20 The sequence of installing additional transformers and feeders, type 2.
FIGURE 5.21 The sequence of installing additional transformers, type 3.
FIGURE 5.22 The sequence of installing additional transformers and feeders, type 4.
FIGURE 5.23 The sequence of installing additional transformers, type 5.
5.9 RADIAL-TYPE DEVELOPMENT
5.10 RADIAL FEEDERS WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
FIGURE 5.24 Radial-type development: (a) type 1, (b) type 2, (c) type 3, and (d) type 4.
FIGURE 5.25 A radial feeder.
FIGURE 5.26 A uniformly distributed main feeder.
5.11 RADIAL FEEDERS WITH NONUNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
FIGURE 5.27 A uniformly increasing load.
FIGURE 5.28 The sending-end current as a function of the distance along a feeder.
5.12 APPLICATION OF THE A, B, C, D GENERAL CIRCUIT CONSTANTS TO RADIAL FEEDERS
FIGURE 5.29 A symbolic representation of a line.
FIGURE 5.30 Phasor diagram.
FIGURE 5.31 A radial feeder.
Example 5.1
5.13 DESIGN OF RADIAL PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
5.13.1 Overhead Primaries
FIGURE 5.32 An overhead radial distribution system.
5.13.2 Underground Residential Distribution
FIGURE 5.33 A two-way feed-type underground residential distribution system.
FIGURE 5.34 Single-line diagram of loop-type primary-feeder circuits: (a) with a disconnect switch at each transformer and (b) without a disconnect switch at each transformer.
FIGURE 5.35 A distribution transformer with internal high-voltage fuse and load-break connectors.
FIGURE 5.36 A distribution transformer with internal high-voltage fuses and load-break switches.
Example 5.2
FIGURE 5.37 The “longest” primary circuit.
Example 5.3
TABLE 5.2 Current-Carrying Capacity of XLPE Aerial Cables
Example 5.4
Example 5.5
TABLE 5.3 15 kV Concentric Neutral XLPE-Insulated Al URD Cable
5.14 PRIMARY SYSTEM COSTS
PROBLEMS
REFERENCES
6 Design Considerations of Secondary Systems
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 SECONDARY VOLTAGE LEVELS
6.3 PRESENT DESIGN PRACTICE
FIGURE 6.1 One-line diagram of a simple radial secondary system.
6.4 SECONDARY BANKING
FIGURE 6.2 Two different methods of banking secondaries: (a) type 1 and (b) type 2.
FIGURE 6.3 Two additional methods of banking secondaries: (a) type 3 and (b) type 4.
6.5 SECONDARY NETWORKS
FIGURE 6.4 One-line diagram of the small segment of a secondary-network system.
6.5.1 Secondary Mains
6.5.2 Limiters
FIGURE 6.5 Limiter characteristics in terms of time to fuse versus current and insulation-damage characteristics of the underground-network cables.
6.5.3 Network Protectors
6.5.4 High-Voltage Switch
FIGURE 6.6 An ideal coordination of secondary-network overcurrent protection devices.
TABLE 6.1 Required Operation of the Protective Apparatus
6.5.5 Network Transformers
FIGURE 6.7 High-voltage switch.
6.5.6 Transformer Application Factor
TABLE 6.2 Standard Ratings for Three-Phase Secondary-Network Transformers Transformer High Voltage
6.6 SPOT NETWORKS
FIGURE 6.8 Network-transformer application factors as a function of ZM/ZT ratio and number of feeders used.
6.7 ECONOMIC DESIGN OF SECONDARIES
6.7.1 Patterns and Some of the Variables
FIGURE 6.9 One-line diagram of the multiple primary system for the John Hancock Center.
FIGURE 6.10 Illustration of a typical pattern.
6.7.2 Further Assumptions
6.7.3 General TAC Equation
6.7.4 Illustrating the Assembly of Cost Data
6.7.5 Illustrating the Estimation of Circuit Loading
TABLE 6.3 Illustrative Load Data
FIGURE 6.11 Estimated circuit loading for copper-loss determinations.
6.7.6 Developed Total Annual Cost Equation
6.7.7 Minimization of the Total Annual Costs
6.7.8 Other Constraints
Example 6.1
FIGURE 6.12 Residential area lot layout and service arrangement.
FIGURE 6.13 Residential area lot layout and utility easement arrangement.
TABLE 6.4 Load Data for Example 6.1
FIGURE 6.14 Illustration of the SLs.
6.8 UNBALANCED LOAD AND VOLTAGES
Example 6.2
FIGURE 6.15 An unbalanced single-phase three-wire secondary circuit.
FIGURE 6.16 Vertical spacing between the secondary wires.
Example 6.3
Example 6.4
Example 6.5
FIGURE 6.17
TABLE 6.5 Bus Voltage Value (pu)
6.9 SECONDARY SYSTEM COSTS
Example 6.6
PROBLEMS
REFERENCES
7 Voltage-Drop and Power-Loss Calculations
7.1 THREE-PHASE BALANCED PRIMARY LINES
7.2 NON-THREE-PHASE PRIMARY LINES
7.2.1 Single-Phase Two-Wire Laterals with Ungrounded Neutral
FIGURE 7.1 Various lateral types that exist in the United States.
7.2.2 Single-Phase Two-Wire Ungrounded Laterals
7.2.3 Single-Phase Two-Wire Laterals with Multigrounded Common Neutrals
FIGURE 7.2 A single-phase lateral with multigrounded common neutral.
7.2.4 Two-Phase Plus Neutral (Open-Wye) Laterals
FIGURE 7.3 An open-wye connected lateral.
Example 7.1
Example 7.2
Example 7.3
7.3 FOUR-WIRE MULTIGROUNDED COMMON NEUTRAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
FIGURE 7.4 A four-wire multigrounded common neutral distribution system.
Example 7.4
FIGURE 7.5 A single-phase circuit.
FIGURE 7.6 Impedance triangle.
Example 7.5
FIGURE 7.7 One-line diagram of a three-phase four-wire secondary system.
Example 7.6
TABLE 7.1 Single-Phase 7200-120/240-V Distribution Transformer Data at 65°C
FIGURE 7.8 Triplexed cable assembly.
FIGURE 7.9 Twin concentric cable assembly.
TABLE 7.2 Twin Concentric Al/Cu XLPE 600 V Cable Data
TABLE 7.3 Load Data
Example 7.7
FIGURE 7.10 Circulation of the secondary-line currents.
Example 7.8
FIGURE 7.11 A residential secondary distribution system.
Example 7.9
FIGURE 7.12 The distribution system of Example 7.9.
Example 7.10
FIGURE 7.13 A square-shaped service area and a lumped-sum load.
Example 7.11
Example 7.12
FIGURE 7.14 The distribution system of Example 7.12.
Example 7.13
Example 7.14
FIGURE 7.15 The distribution system of Example 7.14.
TABLE 7.4 K Constants
7.4 PERCENT POWER (OR COPPER) LOSS
TABLE 7.5 Conductor I2R Losses, kWh/(mi year), at 7.2/12.5 kV and a Load Factor of 0.6
7.5 METHOD TO ANALYZE DISTRIBUTION COSTS
7.5.1 Annual Equivalent of Investment Cost
7.5.2 Annual Equivalent of Energy Cost
7.5.3 Annual Equivalent of Demand Cost
7.5.4 Levelized Annual Cost
FIGURE 7.16 Illustration of the levelized annual cost concept: (a) unlevelized annual cost flow diagram and (b) levelized cost flow diagram.
Example 7.15
TABLE 7.6 Typical ACSR Conductors Used in Rural Areas
TABLE 7.7 Typical ACSR Conductors Used in Urban Areas
FIGURE 7.17 Total annual equivalent cost of ACSR feeders for rural areas in thousands of dollars per mile: (a) 477 cmil, 26 strands, (b) 266.8 cmil, 6 strands, AWG 4/0, and AWG 3/0.
Example 7.16
FIGURE 7.18 Total annual equivalent cost of ACSR feeders for urban areas in thousands of dollars per mile: (a) 477 cmil, 26 strands, (b) AWG 3/0, (c) AWG 1/0, and (d) AWG 4, 7 strands.
Example 7.17
7.6 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF EQUIPMENT LOSSES
PROBLEMS
FIGURE P7.1 One-line diagram for Problem 7.1.
FIGURE P7.7 Illustration for Example 7.7.
FIGURE P7.11 Distribution system for Problem 7.11.
REFERENCES
8 Application of Capacitors to Distribution Systems
8.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
8.2 POWER CAPACITORS
FIGURE 8.1 A cutaway view of a power factor correction capacitor.
FIGURE 8.2 A typical utilization in a switched pole-top rack.
8.3 EFFECTS OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS
8.3.1 Series Capacitors
FIGURE 8.3 Voltage phasor diagrams for a feeder circuit of lagging power factor: (a) and (c) without and (b) and (d) with series capacitors.
8.3.1.1 Overcompensation
FIGURE 8.4 Overcompensation of the receiving-end voltage: (a) at normal load and (b) at the start of a large motor.
FIGURE 8.5 Voltage phasor diagram with leading power factor: (a) without series capacitors and (b) with series capacitors.
8.3.1.2 Leading Power Factor
8.3.2 Shunt Capacitors
FIGURE 8.6 Voltage phasor diagrams for a feeder circuit of lagging power factor: (a) and (c) without and (b) and (d) with shunt capacitors.
Example 8.1
FIGURE 8.7 (a) Phasor diagram and (b) power triangle for a typical distribution load.
8.4 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
8.4.1 General
FIGURE 8.8 Illustration of (a) the use of a power triangle for power factor correction by employing capacitive reactive power and (b) the required increase in the apparent and reactive powers as a function of the load power factor, holding the real power of the load constant.
FIGURE 8.9 Illustration of the change in the real and reactive powers as a function of the load power factor, holding the apparent power of the load constant.
FIGURE 8.10 Illustration of power factor correction.
8.4.2 Concept of Leading and Lagging Power Factors
8.4.3 Economic Power Factor
FIGURE 8.11 Examples of some of the sources of leading and lagging reactive power at the load.
TABLE 8.1 Power Factor of Load and Source
8.4.4 Use of a Power Factor Correction Table
8.4.5 Alternating Cycles of a Magnetic Field
8.4.6 Power Factor of a Group of Loads
Example 8.2
TABLE 8.2 Determination of kW Multiplies to Calculate kvar Requirement for Power Factor Correction
FIGURE 8.12 For Example 8.2: (a) connection diagram, (b) phasor diagrams of individual loads, and (c) phasor diagram of combined loads.
8.4.7 Practical Methods Used by the Power Industry for Power Factor Improvement Calculations
Example 8.3
FIGURE 8.13 Illustration of power factor correction using a shunt capacitor in Example 8.3.
Example 8.4
Example 8.5
FIGURE 8.14 Component current diagram.
Example 8.6
8.4.8 Real Power-Limited Equipment
Example 8.7
Example 8.8
8.4.9 Computerized Method to Determine the Economic Power Factor
8.5 APPLICATION OF CAPACITORS
Example 8.9
FIGURE 8.15 Connection of capacitor units for one phase of a three-phase wye-connected bank.
FIGURE 8.16 Secondary capacitor economics considering only savings in distribution transformer cost.
FIGURE 8.17 Capacitor connected (a) in delta and (b) in wye.
Example 8.10
Example 8.11
Example 8.12
Example 8.13
8.5.1 Capacitor Installation Types
FIGURE 8.18 The effects of a fixed capacitor on the voltage profile of (a) feeder with uniformly distributed load (b) at heavy load and (c) at light load.
FIGURE 8.19 Sizing of the fixed and switched capacitors to meet the daily reactive power demands.
8.5.2 Types of Controls for Switched Shunt Capacitors
8.5.3 Types of Three-Phase Capacitor-Bank Connections
FIGURE 8.20 Meeting the reactive power requirements with fixed, voltage-controlled, and time-controlled capacitors.
8.6 ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FOR CAPACITORS
8.6.1 Benefits due to Released Generation Capacity
8.6.2 Benefits due to Released Transmission Capacity
8.6.3 Benefits due to Released Distribution Substation Capacity
8.6.4 Benefits due to Reduced Energy Losses
8.6.5 Benefits due to Reduced Voltage Drops
8.6.6 Benefits due to Released Feeder Capacity
8.6.7 Financial Benefits due to Voltage Improvement
TABLE 8.3 Additional kWh Energy Increase After Capacitor Addition
8.6.8 Total Financial Benefits due to Capacitor Installations
Example 8.19*
TABLE 8.4 For Example 8.19
8.7 PRACTICAL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE THE BEST CAPACITOR LOCATION
8.8 MATHEMATICAL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE THE OPTIMUM CAPACITOR ALLOCATION
FIGURE 8.21 Primary feeder with lumped-sum (or concentrated) and uniformly distributed loads and reactive current profile before adding the capacitor.
8.8.1 Loss Reduction due to Capacitor Allocation
8.8.1.1 Case 1: One Capacitor Bank
FIGURE 8.22 Loss reduction with one capacitor bank.
FIGURE 8.23 Loss reduction as a function of the capacitor-bank location and capacitor compensation ratio for a line segment with uniformly distributed loads (λ = 0).
FIGURE 8.24 Loss reduction as a function of the capacitor-bank location and capacitor compensation ratio for a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 1/4).
FIGURE 8.25 Loss reduction as a function of the capacitor-bank location and capacitor compensation ratio for a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 1/2).
FIGURE 8.26 Loss reduction as a function of the capacitor-bank location and capacitor compensation ratio for a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 3/4).
FIGURE 8.27 Loss reduction as a function of the capacitor-bank location and capacitor compensation ratio for a line segment with concentrated loads (λ = 1).
TABLE 8.5 Optimum Location and Optimum Loss Reduction
FIGURE 8.28 Loss reduction due to a capacitor bank located at the optimum location on a line section with various combinations of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads.
8.8.1.2 Case 2: Two Capacitor Banks
FIGURE 8.29 Loss reduction due to an optimum-sized capacitor bank located on a line segment with various combinations of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads.
8.8.1.3 Case 3: Three Capacitor Banks
8.8.1.4 Case 4: Four Capacitor Banks
FIGURE 8.30 Loss reduction with two capacitor banks.
8.8.1.5 Case 5: n Capacitor Banks
8.8.2 Optimum Location of a Capacitor Bank
FIGURE 8.31 Loss reduction with three capacitor banks.
FIGURE 8.32 Loss reduction with four capacitor banks.
FIGURE 8.33 Comparison of loss reduction obtainable from n = 1, 2, 3, and ∞ number of capacitor banks, with λ = 0.
FIGURE 8.34 Comparison of loss reduction obtainable from n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and ∞ number of capacitor banks, with λ = 1/4.
8.8.3 Energy Loss Reduction due to Capacitors
FIGURE 8.35 Relationship between the total capacitor compensation ratio and the reactive load factor for uniformly distributed load (λ = 0 and α = 1).
FIGURE 8.36 Energy loss reduction with any capacitor-bank size, located at optimum location
FIGURE 8.37 Energy loss reduction with any capacitor-bank size, located at the optimum location
FIGURE 8.38 Energy loss reduction with any capacitor-bank size, located at the optimum location
FIGURE 8.39 Energy loss reduction with any capacitor-bank size, located at the optimum location
FIGURE 8.40 Energy loss reduction with any capacitor-bank size, located at the optimum location
FIGURE 8.41 Effects of reactive load factors on energy loss reduction due to capacitor-bank installation on a line segment with uniformly distributed load (λ = 0).
FIGURE 8.42 Effects of reactive load factors on energy loss reduction due to capacitor-bank installation on a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 1/4).
FIGURE 8.43 Effects of reactive load factors on energy loss reduction due to capacitor-bank installation on a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 1/2).
FIGURE 8.44 Effects of reactive load factors on loss reduction due to capacitor-bank installation on a line segment with a combination of concentrated and uniformly distributed loads (λ = 3/4).
FIGURE 8.45 Effects of reactive load factors on energy loss reduction due to capacitor-bank installation on a line segment with a concentrated load (λ = 1).
8.8.4 Relative Ratings of Multiple Fixed Capacitors
8.8.5 General Savings Equation for Any Number of Fixed Capacitors
8.9 FURTHER THOUGHTS ON CAPACITORS AND IMPROVING POWER FACTORS
FIGURE 8.46 Schematic diagram for the use of capacitors to reduce total line current by supplying reactive power locally: (a) without the use of capacitors and (b) with the use of capacitors.
8.10 CAPACITOR TANK–RUPTURE CONSIDERATIONS
FIGURE 8.47 Time-to-rupture characteristics for 200 kvar 7.2 kV all-film capacitors.
FIGURE 8.48 Capacitor reliability cycle.
8.11 DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
8.11.1 Ferroresonance
FIGURE 8.49 The LC circuit for ferroresonance.
Example 8.20
8.11.2 Harmonics on Distribution Systems
FIGURE 8.50 Harmonic analysis of peaked no-load current.
FIGURE 8.51 Harmonic components of transformer exciting current.
TABLE 8.6 The Influence of Three-Phase Transformer Connections on Third Harmonics
FIGURE 8.52 Combinations of fundamental and third-harmonic waves: (a) harmonic in phase, (b) harmonic 90° leading, (c) harmonic in opposition, and (d) harmonic 90° lagging.
PROBLEMS
TABLE P8.5 Summary of Load Flows
REFERENCES
9 Distribution System Voltage Regulation
9.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
9.2 QUALITY OF SERVICE AND VOLTAGE STANDARDS
FIGURE 9.1 Illustration of voltage spread on a radial primary feeder: (a) one-line diagram of a feeder circuit, (b) voltage profile at peak-load conditions, and (c) voltage profile at light-load conditions.
TABLE 9.1 Typical Secondary Voltage Standards Applicable to Residential and Commercial Customers
9.3 VOLTAGE CONTROL
9.4 FEEDER VOLTAGE REGULATORS
FIGURE 9.2 Typical single-phase 32-step pole-type voltage regulator used for 167 kVA or below.
FIGURE 9.3 One-line diagram of a feeder, indicating the sequence of essential components.
FIGURE 9.4 Typical platform-mounted voltage-regulators. (Siemens-Allis Company.)
FIGURE 9.5 Individual feeder voltage regulation provided by a bank of distribution voltage regulators. (Siemens-Allis Company.)
FIGURE 9.6 Regulator tap controls based on the set voltage, bandwidth, and time delay.
FIGURE 9.7 Features of the control mechanism of a single-phase 32-step voltage regulator. (McGraw-Edison Company, Belleville, NJ.)
FIGURE 9.8 Standard direct-drive tap changer used through 150 kV BIL, above 219 A.
FIGURE 9.9 Four-step auto-booster regulators: (a) 50 A unit and (b) 100 A unit.
9.5 LINE-DROP COMPENSATION
FIGURE 9.10 Simple schematic diagram and phasor diagram of the control circuit and line-drop compensator circuit of a step or induction voltage regulator.
FIGURE 9.11 Determination of the voltage profiles for (a) peak loads and (b) light loads.
Example 9.1
FIGURE 9.12 The elements of a distribution substation for Example 9.1.
TABLE 9.2 Overloading of Step-Type Feeder Regulators
TABLE 9.3 Some Typical Single-Phase Regulator Sizes
FIGURE 9.13 Feeder voltage profile.
Example 9.2
FIGURE 9.14 Voltage profile for Example 9.2.
Example 9.3
Example 9.4
FIGURE 9.15 Feeder voltage profiles for zero load and for the annual peak load.
TABLE 9.4 For Annual Peak Load
TABLE 9.5 For Annual Peak Load
Example 9.5
TABLE 9.6 Actual Voltages vs. Voltage Criteria at Peak and Zero Loads
TABLE 9.7 Values Obtained
FIGURE 9.16 Voltage profiles.
Example 9.6
Example 9.7
Example 9.8
FIGURE 9.17 One-line diagram of a primary feeder supplying an industrial customer.
Example 9.9
FIGURE 9.18 Optimum location of a capacitor bank.
FIGURE 9.19 Voltage profiles.
Example 9.10
9.6 DISTRIBUTION CAPACITOR AUTOMATION
FIGURE 9.20 A distribution capacitor automation algorithm switches capacitors on and off remotely and automatically, using voltage information from customer meters and var information from the substation.
9.7 VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS
FIGURE 9.21 Permissible voltage-flicker-limit curve.
FIGURE 9.22 Installation of series capacitor to reduce the flicker voltage caused by a fluctuating load.
9.7.1 Shortcut Method to Calculate the Voltage Dips due to a Single-Phase Motor Start
Example 9.11
9.7.2 Shortcut Method to Calculate the Voltage Dips due to a Three-Phase Motor Start
Example 9.12
PROBLEMS
FIGURE P9.10 Figure for Problem 9.10.
TABLE P9.10 Table for Problem P9.10
FIGURE P9.12 Figure for Problem 9.12.
FIGURE P9.13 Figure for Problem 9.13.
REFERENCES
10 Distribution System Protection
10.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
10.2 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION DEVICES
10.2.1 Fuses
FIGURE 10.1 Classification of high-voltage fuses.
TABLE 10.1 Interrupting Ratings of Open-Fuse Cutouts
FIGURE 10.2 Typical open-fuse cutout in pole-top style for 7.2/14.4 kV overhead distribution.
FIGURE 10.3 Typical application of open-fuse cutouts in 7.2/14.4 kV overhead distribution.
10.2.2 Automatic Circuit Reclosers
FIGURE 10.4 Typical fuse links used on outdoor distribution: (a) fuse link rated less than 10 A and (b) fuse link rated 10–100 A.
FIGURE 10.5 Minimum-melting-TCC curves for typical (fast) fuse links. Curves are plotted to minimum test points, so all variations should be +20% in current.
FIGURE 10.6 Typical transformer protection application of 34.5 kV SM-type power fuses.
10.2.3 Automatic Line Sectionalizers
FIGURE 10.7 Feeder protection application of 34.5 kV SM-type power fuses.
FIGURE 10.8 Cutaway view of typical 34.5 kV SM-type refill unit.
TABLE 10.2 Asymmetrical Factors as Function of X/R Ratios
FIGURE 10.9 Typical single-phase hydraulically controlled automatic circuit recloser: (a) type H, 4H, V4H, or L and (b) type D, E, 4E, or DV.
FIGURE 10.10 Typical three-phase hydraulically controlled automatic circuit reclosers: (a) type 6H or V6H and (b) type RV, RVE, RX, RXE, etc.
FIGURE 10.11 Typical three-pole automatic circuit recloser.
FIGURE 10.12 Typical single- and three-phase automatic line sectionalizers: (a) type GH, (b) type GN3, (c) type GN3E, (d) type GV, (e) type GW, and (f) type GWC.
10.2.4 Automatic Circuit Breakers
FIGURE 10.13 (a) and (b) Typical oil circuit breakers.
FIGURE 10.14 Typical vacuum circuit breaker.
FIGURE 10.15 A typical IAC single-phase overcurrent-relay unit.
FIGURE 10.16 TCC of overcurrent relays.
FIGURE 10.17 Time–current curves of IAC overcurrent relays with inverse characteristics.
10.3 OBJECTIVE OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PROTECTION
FIGURE 10.18 A distribution feeder protection scheme.
10.4 COORDINATION OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES
10.5 FUSE-TO-FUSE COORDINATION
FIGURE 10.19 Coordinating fuses in series using TCC curves of the fuses connected in series.
10.6 RECLOSER-TO-RECLOSER COORDINATION
TABLE 10.3 Coordination Table for GE Type “K” (Fast) Fuse Links Used in GE 50, 100, or 200 A Expulsion Fuse Cutouts and Connected in Series
TABLE 10.4 Coordination Table for GE Type “T” (Slow) Fuse Links Used in GE 50, 100, or 200 A Expulsion Fuse Cutouts and Connected in Series
10.7 RECLOSER-TO-FUSE COORDINATION
FIGURE 10.20 Typical recloser tripping characteristics.
FIGURE 10.21 Recloser TCC curves superimposed on fuse TCC curves.
FIGURE 10.22 Temperature cycle of fuse link during recloser operation.
FIGURE 10.23 Recloser-to-fuse coordination (corrected for heating and cooling cycle).
TABLE 10.5 Automatic Recloser and Fuse Ratings
10.8 RECLOSER TO SUBSTATION TRANSFORMER HIGH-SIDE FUSE COORDINATION
10.9 FUSE-TO CIRCUIT-BREAKER COORDINATION
10.10 RECLOSER-TO-CIRCUIT-BREAKER COORDINATION
Example 10.1
FIGURE 10.24 An example of recloser-to-relay coordination. Curve A represents TCCs of one instantaneous recloser opening. Curve B represents TCCs of one extended time-delay recloser opening. Curve C represents TCCs of the IAC relay.
10.11 FAULT-CURRENT CALCULATIONS*
10.11.1 Three-Phase Faults
10.11.2 Line-to-Line Faults
10.11.3 Single Line-to-Ground Faults
TABLE 10.6 Estimated Values of the K0 Constant for Various Conditions
10.11.4 Components of the Associated Impedance to the Fault
FIGURE 10.25 Typical pole-top overhead distribution circuit configuration.
10.11.5 Sequence-Impedance Tables for the Application of Symmetrical Components
FIGURE 10.26 Various overhead pole-top conductor configurations: (a) without ground wire, z0 = z0,a; (b) with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z′0; and (c) with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z″0.
FIGURE 10.27 Various overhead pole-top conductor configurations: (a) without ground wire, z0 = z0,a, (b) with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z′0, and (c) with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z″0.
FIGURE 10.28 Various overhead pole-top conductor configurations with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z′0.
Example 10.2
FIGURE 10.29 Various overhead pole-top conductor configurations: (a) without ground wire, z0 = z0,a and (b) with ground wire, z0 = z0,a + z′0
FIGURE 10.30 Single-phase overhead pole-top configurations with ground wires: (a) z1φ = z′1φ and (b) z1φ = z″1φ.
TABLE 10.7 Sequence-Impedance Values Associated with Figure 10.26, Ω/1000 ft
TABLE 10.8 Sequence-Impedance Values Associated with Figure 10.27, Ω/1000 ft
TABLE 10.9 Sequence-Impedance Values for Bare-Aluminum–Steel (AS) Associated with Figure 10.28, Ω/1000 ft
TABLE 10.10 Sequence-Impedance Values for Bare-Aluminum–Steel (AS) Associated with Figure 10.29, Ω/1000 ft
TABLE 10.11 Impedance Values Associated with Figure 10.30, Ω/1000 ft
10.12 FAULT-CURRENT CALCULATIONS IN PER UNITS
Example 10.3
TABLE 10.12 Fault-Current Formulas in Per Units
FIGURE 10.31 A distribution substation.
TABLE 10.13 Results of Example 10.3
10.13 SECONDARY-SYSTEM FAULT-CURRENT CALCULATIONS
10.13.1 Single-Phase 120/240 V Three-Wire Secondary Service
FIGURE 10.32 A line-to-ground fault involving line l1 and neutral or line l2 and neutral.
10.13.2 Three-Phase 240/120 or 480/240 V Wye–Delta or Delta–Delta Four-Wire Secondary Service
FIGURE 10.33 A wye–delta or delta–delta secondary service. If needed, the wye primary can be replaced with its equivalent delta, as illustrated.
10.13.3 Three-Phase 240/120 or 480/240 V Open-Wye Primary and Four-Wire Open-Delta Secondary Service
FIGURE 10.34 An open-wye primary and open-delta secondary service.
FIGURE 10.35 Various fault-current paths in the transformer and associated impedance-transfer ratios.
10.13.4 Three-Phase 208Y/120 V, 480Y/277 V, or 832Y/480 V Four-Wire Wye–Wye Secondary Service
FIGURE 10.36 A three-phase wye–wye-connected four-wire secondary connection.
Example 10.4
FIGURE 10.37 A single-phase L–L secondary on a 120/240 V three-wire service.
10.14 HIGH-IMPEDANCE FAULTS
10.15 LIGHTNING PROTECTION
10.15.1 A Brief Review of Lightning Phenomenon
FIGURE 10.38 An illustration of the lightning phenomenon.
FIGURE 10.39 The complete process of a lightning flash.
10.15.2 Lightning Surges
FIGURE 10.40 (a) Induced line charges due to indirect lightning strokes and (b) an occurence of a lightning among clouds.
10.15.3 Lightning Protection
10.15.4 Basic Lightning Impulse Level
Example 10.5
Example 10.6
10.15.5 Determining the Expected Number of Strikes on a Line
FIGURE 10.41 The ground flash density of the United States.
TABLE 10.14 Constant C for REA Standard Pole Lengths
Example 10.7
Example 10.8
Example 10.9
Example 10.10
10.16 INSULATORS
PROBLEMS
FIGURE P10.1 Distribution circuit of Problem 10.7.
REFERENCES
11 Distribution System Reliability
11.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
11.2 NATIONAL ELECTRIC RELIABILITY COUNCIL
FIGURE 11.1 Regional Electric Reliability Councils.
11.3 APPROPRIATE LEVELS OF DISTRIBUTION RELIABILITY
TABLE 11.1 Classification of Generic and Specific Causes of Outages
FIGURE 11.2 Classification of reported outage events in the National Electric Reliability Study for the period July 1970–June 1979: (a) types of events, (b) generic subsystems, and (c) generic causes.
FIGURE 11.3 Cumulative duration in minutes to restore reported customer outages.
TABLE 11.2 Detailed Industrial Service Interruption Cost Example
FIGURE 11.4 Cost versus system reliability.
11.4 BASIC RELIABILITY CONCEPTS AND MATHEMATICS
11.4.1 General Reliability Function
FIGURE 11.5 A reliability planning procedure.
FIGURE 11.6 The bathtub hazard function.
FIGURE 11.7 Relationship between reliability and unreliability.
11.4.2 Basic Single-Component Concepts
FIGURE 11.8 Two-state model.
11.5 SERIES SYSTEMS
11.5.1 Unrepairable Components in Series
FIGURE 11.9 Block diagram of a series system with two components.
FIGURE 11.10 Block diagram of a series system with n components.
FIGURE 11.11 The reliability of a series system (structure) of n identical components.
Example 11.1
11.5.2 Repairable Components in Series*
11.6 PARALLEL SYSTEMS
11.6.1 Unrepairable Components in Parallel
FIGURE 11.12 Block diagram of a parallel system with two components.
FIGURE 11.13 Block diagram of a parallel system with m components.
11.6.2 Repairable Components in Parallel*
FIGURE 11.14 The reliability of a parallel system (structure) of n parallel components.
Example 11.2
FIGURE 11.15 A 4 mi long distribution express feeder.
Example 11.3
FIGURE 11.16 A primary system for Example 11.3.
11.7 SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATIONS
FIGURE 11.17 A parallel–series system.
FIGURE 11.18 A series–parallel system.
Example 11.4
FIGURE 11.19 Various combinations of block diagrams: (a) series, (b) parallel–series, (c) mixed parallel, (d) mixed parallel, and (e) series–parallel.
Example 11.5
Example 11.6
FIGURE 11.20 System configuration.
FIGURE 11.21 Imposed system configuration.
TABLE 11.3 Summary of the Computations
11.8 MARKOV PROCESSES*
FIGURE 11.22 Transition system (a) for a two-state system and (b) for a three-state system.
Example 11.7
FIGURE 11.23 Transition diagram.
Example 11.8
TABLE 11.4 Feeder Outage Data
FIGURE 11.24 Transition diagram.
11.8.1 Chapman–Kolmogorov Equations
Example 11.9
11.8.2 Classification of States in Markov Chains
11.9 DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE-TRANSITION MODEL TO DETERMINE THE STEADY-STATE PROBABILITIES
11.10 DISTRIBUTION RELIABILITY INDICES
11.11 SUSTAINED INTERRUPTION INDICES
11.11.1 SAIFI
11.11.2 SAIDI
11.11.3 CAIDI
11.11.4 CTAIDI
11.11.5 CAIFI
11.11.6 ASAI
11.11.7 ASIFI
11.11.8 ASIDI
11.11.9 CEMIn
11.12 OTHER INDICES (MOMENTARY)
11.12.1 MAIFI
11.12.2 MAIFIE
11.12.3 CEMSMIn
11.13 LOAD- AND ENERGY-BASED INDICES
11.13.1 ENS
11.13.2 AENS
11.13.3 ACCI
Example 11.10
TABLE 11.5 Distribution System Data of GMEU Company
TABLE 11.6 Annual Interruption Effects
11.14 USAGE OF RELIABILITY INDICES
11.15 BENEFITS OF RELIABILITY MODELING IN SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
11.16 ECONOMICS OF RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT
PROBLEMS
FIGURE P11.12 Various system configurations: (a) in series, (b) in series and parallel, (c) in parallel, and (d) in parallel and series, connections.
FIGURE P11.13 Various system configurations: (a) series connections of number of combinations, and (b) the same as (a) but with different reliabilities.
FIGURE P11.14 System configuration for Problem 11.14.
TABLE P11.29A Distribution System Data
TABLE P11.29B Annual Interruption Effects
TABLE P11.30A Component Data for the Radial Feeder
TABLE P11.30B Distribution System Data
TABLE P11.30C Additional Distribution System Data
REFERENCES
12 Electric Power Quality
12.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
12.2 DEFINITION OF ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY
12.3 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER QUALITY
TABLE 12.1 Classification of Electromagnetic Disturbances according to IEC
12.4 TYPES OF DISTURBANCES
12.4.1 Harmonic Distortion
TABLE 12.2 Categories and Characteristics of Power System Electromagnetic Phenomena
FIGURE 12.1 Various types of disturbances: (a) harmonic distortion, (b) noise, (c) notches, (d) sag, (e) swell, and (f) surge.
TABLE 12.3 Sources and Characteristics of Surge Voltages in Primary and Secondary Distribution Circuits
FIGURE 12.2 Various transients.
12.4.2 CBEMA and ITI Curves
FIGURE 12.3 CBEMA curve.
FIGURE 12.4 ITI curve.
12.5 MEASUREMENTS OF ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY
12.5.1 RMS Voltage and Current
12.5.2 Distribution Factors
12.5.3 Active (Real) and Reactive Power
12.5.4 Apparent Power
12.5.5 Power Factor
12.5.6 Current and Voltage Crest Factors
Example 12.1
12.5.7 Telephone Interference and the I · T Product
TABLE 12.4 Standard Telephone Interference Weighting Factors
TABLE 12.5 IEEE Std. 519-1992 Limits for Harmonic Voltage Distortion in Percent at PCC
Example 12.2
Example 12.3
12.6 POWER IN PASSIVE ELEMENTS
12.6.1 Power in a Pure Resistance
12.6.2 Power in a Pure Inductance
12.6.3 Power in a Pure Capacitance
12.7 HARMONIC DISTORTION LIMITS
12.7.1 Voltage Distortion Limits
12.7.2 Current Distortion Limits
FIGURE 12.5 Selection of PCC.
TABLE 12.6 IEEE Std. 519-1992 Limits Imposed on Customers (120 V–69 kV) for Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL for Odd Harmonic h at the PCC
TABLE 12.7 IEEE Std. 519-1992 Limits Imposed on Customers (69–161 kV) for Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL for Odd Harmonic h at the PCC
TABLE 12.8 IEEE Std. 519-1992 Limits Imposed on Customers (above 161 kV) for Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL for Odd Harmonic h at the PCC
12.8 EFFECTS OF HARMONICS
TABLE 12.9 Comparison of Sensing Techniques for Various Waveforms
12.9 SOURCES OF HARMONICS
FIGURE 12.6 Representation of a nonlinear load.
FIGURE 12.7 General flow of harmonic currents in a radial power system: (a) without power capacitors and (b) with power capacitors.
12.10 DERATING TRANSFORMERS
12.10.1 K-Factor
12.10.2 Transformer Derating
Example 12.4
TABLE 12.10 Typical Values of Pec-r
TABLE 12.11 The Results of Example 12.4, Part (a)
12.11 NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR OVERLOADING
Example 12.5
Example 12.6
12.12 CAPACITOR BANKS AND POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
FIGURE 12.8 Power triangle for a PF correction capacitor bank.
12.13 SHORT-CIRCUIT CAPACITY OR MVA
12.14 SYSTEM RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
12.14.1 System Impedance
12.14.2 Capacitor Impedance
12.15 BUS VOLTAGE RISE AND RESONANCE
FIGURE 12.9 Power system with shunt switched capacitor.
Example 12.7
12.16 HARMONIC AMPLIFICATION
FIGURE 12.10 Capacitor switching.
Example 12.8
12.17 RESONANCE
12.17.1 Series Resonance
FIGURE 12.11 Resonance circuits for (a) series resonance and (b) parallel resonance.
Example 12.9
12.17.2 Parallel Resonance
Example 12.10
12.17.3 Effects of Harmonics on the Resonance
Example 12.11
12.17.4 Practical Examples of Resonance Circuits
FIGURE 12.12 Practical examples of resonance circuits: (a) series resonance circuit, (b) its equivalent circuit, (c) parallel resonance circuit, and (d) its equivalent circuit.
FIGURE 12.13 Parallel resonance considerations: (a) a parallel resonance prone system, (b) its equivalent circuit, (c) effects of capacitor sizes, and (d) effects of resistive loads.
Example 12.12
12.18 HARMONIC CONTROL SOLUTIONS
12.18.1 Passive Filters
FIGURE 12.14 Common passive filter configurations: (a) type I, (b) type II, (c) type III, and (d) type IV.
FIGURE 12.15 A typical 480 V single-tuned wye- or delta-connected filter configurations.
FIGURE 12.16 General procedure for designing individually tuned filter steps for harmonic control.
Example 12.13
TABLE 12.12 Harmonic Filter Design Spreadsheet for Example 12.13
12.18.2 Active Filters
12.19 HARMONIC FILTER DESIGN
12.19.1 Series-Tuned Filters
Example 12.14
Example 12.15
12.19.2 Second-Order Damped Filters
Example 12.16
Example 12.17
12.20 LOAD MODELING IN THE PRESENCE OF HARMONICS
12.20.1 Impedance in the Presence of Harmonics
12.20.2 Skin Effect
12.20.3 Load Models
Example 12.18
PROBLEMS
TABLE P12.5 The Output of the Harmonic Analyzer
REFERENCES
13 Distributed Generation and Renewable Energy
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY
13.3 IMPACT OF DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION
13.4 INTEGRATING RENEWABLES INTO POWER SYSTEMS
FIGURE 13.1 Connecting DSGs into utility system.
13.5 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
13.6 RENEWABLE ENERGY PENETRATION
13.7 ACTIVE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
13.8 CONCEPT OF MICROGRID
FIGURE 13.2 A typical microgrid connection scheme.
13.9 WIND ENERGY AND WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM
TABLE 13.1 Installed Wind Power Capacity Worldwide, as of 2009
FIGURE 13.3 Solar and wind applications in the city of Kassel in the state of Hessen, Germany.
FIGURE 13.4 Solar and wind turbine applications in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz in Germany.
13.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Energy Conversion Systems
13.9.2 Advantages of a Wind Energy Conversion System
13.9.3 Disadvantages of a Wind Energy Conversion System
13.9.4 Categories of Wind Turbines
FIGURE 13.5 Horizontal-axis three-blade wind energy.
FIGURE 13.6 Overview of differential types of wind energy converters.
FIGURE 13.7 Eight categories of wind turbines used in the Altamont Pass in California.
FIGURE 13.8 Major components of a horizontal-axis wind turbine.
13.9.5 Types of Generators Used in Wind Turbines
FIGURE 13.9 Block diagram of a WECS: (a) using a dc generator, (b) using a synchronous alternator, and (c) using induction generator.
FIGURE 13.10 Variable-speed pitch-regulated wind turbine.
13.9.6 Wind Turbine Operating Systems
13.9.6.1 Constant-Speed Wind Turbines
13.9.6.2 Variable-Speed Wind Turbines
13.9.7 Meteorology of Wind
Example 13.1
FIGURE 13.11 Pressure variations with altitude for US standard atmosphere.
13.9.7.1 Power in the Wind
FIGURE 13.12 TSR diagrams for various types of wind energy converters. (The power coefficient gives a measure of how large a share of the wind’s power a turbine can utilize. The theoretical maximum of the value is 16/27 = 0.5926. The diagram shows the relation between TSR and power coefficient for different types of wind turbines: (a) windmill, (b) modern turbine with three blades, (c) vertical-axis Darrieus turbine, and (d) modern turbine with two blades.)
Example 13.2
13.9.8 Effects of a Wind Force
13.9.9 Impact of Tower Height on Wind Power
TABLE 13.2 Roughness Coefficient for Various Class Types of Terrain
Example 13.3
Example 13.4
13.9.10 Wind Measurements
Example 13.5
13.9.11 Characteristics of a Wind Generator
FIGURE 13.13 A typical power curve for a wind turbine.
Example 13.6
13.9.12 Efficiency and Performance
Example 13.7
TABLE 13.3 Development of Wind Turbine Size, 1980–2005
Example 13.8
Example 13.9
13.9.13 Efficiency of a Wind Turbine
13.9.13.1 Generator Efficiency
TABLE 13.4 Generator Efficiency
TABLE 13.5 Relationship between Size and Efficiency
13.9.13.2 Gearbox
13.9.13.3 Overall Efficiency
13.9.13.4 Other Factors to Define the Efficiency
Example 13.10
13.9.14 Grid Connection
13.9.15 Some Further Issues Related to Wind Energy
13.9.16 Development of Transmission System for Wind Energy in the United States
13.9.17 Energy Storage
13.9.18 Wind Power Forecasting
13.10 SOLAR ENERGY
13.10.1 Solar Energy Systems
FIGURE 13.14 Wind and solar application in the city of Huleka in South Africa. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 13.15 Solar applications on the roof of Oregon State Capital, Salem, Oregon, United States. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 13.16 Solar installations at Montalto di Castro in Italy. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 13.17 Solar applications on the rooftop of a barn in Bayern, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 13.18 Solar module used in the city of Kassel in the state of Hessen, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 13.19 Solar and wind turbine applications in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
13.10.2 Crystalline Silicon
FIGURE 13.20 Solar applications on a building in the city of Laatzen in the state of Niedersachsen, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 13.21 Solar applications in a sports stadium in the city of Mainz in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 13.22 Solar application in a German school in San Salvador. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 13.23 Solar rooftop applications in the state of Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 13.24 Typical 3 in. diameter cell.
FIGURE 13.25 Typical I–V characteristic for a PV cell.
Example 13.11
Example 13.12
Example 13.13
Example 13.14
Example 13.15
Example 13.16
13.10.3 Effect of Sunlight on Solar Cell’s Performance
TABLE 13.6 Latitudes of Selected Cities around the World
Example 13.17
FIGURE 13.26 Solution for Example 13.17.
13.10.4 Effects of Changing Strength of the Sun on a Solar Cell
Example 13.18
FIGURE 13.27 Variation of I–V characteristic of a solar cell due to changing power density.
TABLE 13.7 Data for Example 13.19
Example 13.19
13.10.5 Temperature’s Effect on Cell Characteristics
Example 13.20
13.10.6 Efficiency of Solar Cells
Example 13.21
13.10.7 Interconnection of Solar Cells
Example 13.22
FIGURE 13.28 Connection of 12 identical cells.
FIGURE 13.29 Panel arrangement for Example 13.22.
13.10.8 Overall System Configuration
FIGURE 13.30 Two fundamental solar generator configurations: (a) stand-alone system and (b) supplemental or cogeneration system.
FIGURE 13.31 Solar module used in the city of Kassel in the state of Hessen, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology.)
Example 13.23
FIGURE 13.32 Installation of solar panels in Example 13.23.
13.10.9 Thin-Film PV
13.10.10 Concentrating PV
13.10.11 PV Balance of Systems
13.10.12 Types of Conversion Technologies
FIGURE 13.33 Solar applications in a sports stadium in the city of Mainz in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 13.34 Solar application in the INECO airport in the city of Valencia, Spain. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
13.10.13 Linear CSP Systems
13.10.14 Power Tower CSP Systems
13.10.15 Dish/Engine CSP Systems
13.10.16 PV Applications
13.10.16.1 Utility-Interactive PV Systems
13.10.16.2 Stand-Alone PV Systems
PROBLEMS
TABLE P17.1 Necessary Energy Data for the Cottage
REFERENCES
GENERAL REFERENCES
14 Energy Storage Systems for Electric Power Utility Systems
14.1 INTRODUCTION*
14.2 STORAGE SYSTEMS
14.3 STORAGE DEVICES
FIGURE 14.1 Comparison of storage technologies.
14.3.1 Large Hydro
14.3.2 Compressed Air Storage
14.3.3 Pumped Hydro
14.3.4 Hydrogen
14.3.5 High-Power Flywheels
14.3.6 High-Power Flow Batteries
14.3.7 High-Power Supercapacitors
14.3.8 Super Conducting Magnetic Energy Storage
14.3.9 Heat or Cold Storage
FIGURE 14.2 SMES unit with double GTO thyristor bridge.
14.4 BATTERY TYPES
14.4.1 Secondary Batteries
FIGURE 14.3 The trend of exponential improvement in battery performance.
14.4.2 Sodium–Sulfur Batteries
14.4.3 Flow Battery Technology
14.4.3.1 Zinc–Bromine Flow Battery
14.4.3.2 Vanadium Redox Flow Battery
14.4.4 Lithium-Ion Batteries
14.4.4.1 Lithium–Titanate Batteries
14.4.4.2 Lithium Ion Phosphate Batteries
14.4.5 Lead–Acid Batteries
14.4.5.1 Advanced Lead–Acid Batteries
14.4.6 Nickel–Cadmium Batteries
14.5 OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS IN BATTERY USAGE
14.6 FUEL CELLS
FIGURE 14.4 A block diagram of a fuel cell system.
FIGURE 14.5 Flows and reactions in a fuel cell.
14.6.1 Types of Fuel Cells
14.6.1.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane
TABLE 14.1 Brief Comparison of Five Fuel Cell Technologies
14.6.1.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
14.6.1.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
14.6.1.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
REFERENCES
15 Concept of Smart Grid and Its Applications
15.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
15.2 INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 15.1 The conceptual representation of the smart grid network framework of NIST.
FIGURE 15.2 The representation of a smart grid as a tree.
15.3 NEED FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF SMART GRID
FIGURE 15.3 Legacy systems (today’s electric grid).
FIGURE 15.4 2007 electric generation by source.
TABLE 15.1 Comparison of the Features of the Smart Grid with the Existing Grid
FIGURE 15.5 Solar and wind applications in the city of Kassel in the state of Hessen, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 15.6 Solar and wind turbine applications in the state of Rheinland-Pfalz in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 15.7 Solar installations in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 15.8 Solar applications on the roof of Munich Temple in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 15.9 Solar application in the city of Kassel in the state of Hessen in Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
15.4 SMART GRID APPLICATIONS VERSUS BUSINESS OBJECTIVES
Example 15.1
Example 15.2
Example 15.3
15.5 ROOTS OF THE MOTIVATION FOR THE SMART GRID
TABLE 15.2 Enabled Applications
TABLE 15.3 Smart Grid Applications
FIGURE 15.10 Application of Ethernet TCP/IP sensors, transducers, and communication protocol for load control.
15.6 DISTRIBUTION AUTOMATION
FIGURE 15.11 Tasks involved in the distribution level automation (at the MV level).
FIGURE 15.12 The tasks involved in the distribution system monitoring.
FIGURE 15.13 The tasks of an AMI.
FIGURE 15.14 An illustration for how to control volt/var flows related to a distribution primary line using the individual, independent, stand-alone volt/var regulating equipment under the traditional VVC approach.
15.7 ACTIVE DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
FIGURE 15.15 Solar applications in Bruchweg stadium- FSV Mainz 05, Germany. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 15.16 Solar applications in the state of Crevillente in Spain. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
FIGURE 15.17 Solar applications in Montalto di Castro in Italy. (SMA Solar Technology AG.)
15.8 INTEGRATION OF SMART GRID WITH DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
FIGURE 15.18 Integration of the existing DMS with smart grid.
15.9 VOLT/VAR CONTROL IN DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
15.9.1 Traditional Approach to Volt/VAR Control in the Distribution Networks
Example 15.4
15.9.2 SCADA Approach to Control Volt/VAR in the Distribution Networks
Example 15.5
FIGURE 15.19 Var dispatch components of a SCADA system.
FIGURE 15.20 Var dispatch rules applied (and no action is required).
FIGURE 15.21 The capacitor bank is switched on.
FIGURE 15.22 Change in reactive power is detected, and the capacitor bank is switched off.
15.9.3 Integrated Volt/VAR Control Optimization
Example 15.6
FIGURE 15.23 VVO system configuration.
15.10 EXISTING ELECTRIC POWER GRID
15.11 SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION
FIGURE 15.24 SCADA.
15.12 ADVANCED SCADA CONCEPTS
FIGURE 15.25 SCADA in a virtual system established by a WAN.
15.12.1 Substation Controllers
15.13 ADVANCED DEVELOPMENTS FOR INTEGRATED SUBSTATION AUTOMATION
FIGURE 15.26 Substation controller.
FIGURE 15.27 Configuration of SA system.
15.14 EVOLUTION OF SMART GRID
FIGURE 15.28 The evolution of smart grid as a function of return-on-investment versus time.
FIGURE 15.29 Return on investments for a smart grid.
FIGURE 15.30 The additional steps that are necessary to achieve the VVO.
15.15 SMART MICROGRIDS
FIGURE 15.31 The dc and ac schematics of an MRG energy DG system.
FIGURE 15.32 The ac schematics of an MRG energy DG system.
15.16 TOPOLOGY OF A MICROGRID
FIGURE 15.33 The topology of a smart microgrid with required microgrid components.
15.17 FUTURE OF A SMART GRID
FIGURE 15.34 The envisioned smart grid of the future.
15.18 STANDARDS OF SMART GRIDS
FIGURE 15.35 Development of standards for the smart grid.
FIGURE 15.36 The application of IEC 61850 and CIM to a substation environment.
FIGURE 15.37 Developing the CIM for distribution applications as well as its application to the field operations.
15.19 ASSET MANAGEMENT
FIGURE 15.38 The IEC 61968 IRM showing activity diagrams and sequence diagrams that are organized by the IRM.
15.20 EXISTING CHALLENGES TO THE APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT OF SMART GRIDS
15.21 EVOLUTION OF SMART GRID
FIGURE 15.39 Illustrates the possible future application of the smart grid concept at the substation level as well as between substations.
FIGURE 15.40 Present and future research areas in smart grid applications.
REFERENCES
Back Matter
Appendix A: Impedance Tables for Lines, Transformers, and Underground Cables
TABLE A.1 Characteristics of Copper Conductors, Hard-Drawn, 97.3% Conductivity
TABLE A.2 Characteristics of Anaconda Hollow Copper Conductors
TABLE A.3 Characteristics of General Cable Type HH Hollow Copper Conductors
TABLE A.4 Characteristics of Alcoa Aluminum Conductors, Hard-Drawn, 61% Conductivity
TABLE A.5 Characteristics of Aluminum Cable, Steel Reinforced (Aluminum Company of America)
TABLE A.6 Characteristics of “Expanded” Aluminum Cable, Steel Reinforced (Aluminum Company of America)
TABLE A.7 Characteristics of Copperweld Copper Conductors
TABLE A.8 Characteristics of Copperweld Conductors
TABLE A.9 Electrical Characteristics of Overhead Ground Wires
TABLE A.10 Inductive Reactance Spacing Factor Xd, Ω/(Conductor mi), at 60 Hz
TABLE A.11 Zero-Sequence Resistive and Inductive Factors Ω/(Conductor · mi)
TABLE A.12 Shunt Capacitive Reactance Spacing Factor x′d (MΩ/Conductor · mi), at 60 Hz
TABLE A.13 Zero-Sequence Shunt Capacitive Reactance Factor x′0, MΩ/(Conductor · mi)
TABLE A.14 Standard Impedances of Distribution Transformers
TABLE A.15 Standard Impedances for Power Transformers 10,000 kVA and below
TABLE A.16 Standard Impedance Limits for Power Transformers Above 10,000 kVA
TABLE A.17 60 Hz Characteristics of Three-Conductor Belted Paper-Insulated Cables
TABLE A.18 60 Hz Characteristics of Three-Conductor Shielded Paper-Insulated Cables
TABLE A.19 60 Hz Characteristics of Three-Conductor Oil-Filled Paper-Insulated Cables
TABLE A.20 60 Hz Characteristics of Single-Conductor Concentric-Strand Paper-Insulated Cables
TABLE A.21 60 Hz Characteristics of Single-Conductor Oil-Filled (Hollow-Core) Paper-Insulated Cables
TABLE A.22 Current-Carrying Capacity of Three-Conductor Belted Paper-Insulated Cables
TABLE A.23 Current-Carrying Capacity of Three-Conductor Shielded Paper-Insulated Cables
TABLE A.24 Current-Carrying Capacity of Single-Conductor Solid Paper-Insulated Cables
TABLE A.25 60 Hz Characteristics of Self-Supporting Rubber-Insulated Neoprene-Jacketed Aerial Cable
REFERENCES
Appendix B: Graphic Symbols Used in Distribution System Design
TABLE B.1 Graphic Symbols Used in Distribution System Design
Appendix C: Standard Device Numbers Used in Protection Systems
Appendix D: The Per-Unit System
D.1 INTRODUCTION
D.2 SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEM
Example D.1
Example D.2
D.3 CONVERTING FROM PER-UNIT VALUES TO PHYSICAL VALUES
D.4 CHANGE OF BASE
Example D.3
D.5 THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Example D.4
Example D.5
Example D.6
Example D.7
TABLE D.1 Results of Example D.7
PROBLEMS
Appendix E: Glossary for Distribution System Terminology
REFERENCES
Notation
Answers to Selected Problems
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Index