Name: Test Bank for Principles of Human Physiology 6th Edition by Stanfield
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ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0134399412
ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0134399416
Author: Cindy Stanfield

Principles of Human Physiology, Sixth Edition uses a precise and clear-cut writing style to offer lasting comprehension for Human Physiology students, extending to real-life application in the field. The Sixth Edition provides essential digital resources to foster critical thinking and problem-solving skills. The exceptional art program is consistent, scientifically accurate, and visually appealing. Stanfield’s renowned flexible pedagogy allows instructors to choose what is essential to students when mapping out their course.

MasteringA&P provides a framework for students to practice solving clinical problems, think conceptually, and apply new knowledge. Assigning interactive tutorials and coaching activities in MasteringA&P directs student learning on the toughest topics and provides a comprehensive and engaging learning environment.

Table of Content:

1 Introduction to Physiology
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
1.1 Organization of the Body
Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems
Cells and Tissues
Organs and Organ Systems
Quick Check 1.1
The Overall Body Plan: A Simplified View
The Body’s External Environment
The Body’s Internal Environment
The Exchange of Materials Between the External and Internal Environments
Body Fluid Compartments
Quick Check 1.2
1.2 Homeostasis: A Central Organizing Principle of Physiology
Apply Your Knowledge
Negative Feedback Control in Homeostasis
Quick Check 1.3
1.3 The Diabetes Epidemic
Prevalence of Diabetes
Obesity and Diabetes
Classification of Diabetes
Diabetes Mellitus
Gestational Diabetes
Prediabetes
Diabetes Insipidus
Diagnosing Diabetes Mellitus
Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus
Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
Chapter Review
Summary
1.1 Organization of the Body, p. 2
1.2 Homeostasis: A Central Organizing Principle of Physiology, p. 9
1.3 The Diabetes Epidemic, p. 13
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
2 The Cell Structure and Function
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
2.1 Biomolecules
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides
Synthesis and Breakdown of Saccharides
Lipids
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Apply Your Knowledge
Eicosanoids
Steroids
Amino Acids and Proteins
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
Quick Check 2.1
2.2 Cell Structure
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid Bilayer
Membrane Proteins
Apply Your Knowledge
Membrane Carbohydrates
Structure of the Nucleus
Contents of the Cytosol
Structure of Membranous Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Structure of Nonmembranous Organelles
Ribosomes
Vaults
Centrioles
Cytoskeleton
Apply Your Knowledge
Quick Check 2.2
2.3 Cell-to-Cell Adhesions
Tight Junctions
Desmosomes
Gap Junctions
2.4 General Cell Functions
Metabolism
Cellular Transport
Intercellular Communication
Quick Check 2.3
2.5 Protein Synthesis
The Role of the Genetic Code
Transcription
Translation
Apply Your Knowledge
Destination of Proteins
Post-translational Processing and Packaging of Proteins
Regulation of Protein Synthesis
Regulation of Transcription
Regulation of Translation
Protein Degradation
Quick Check 2.4
2.6 Cell Division
Replication of DNA
The Cell Cycle
Quick Check 2.5
Chapter Review
Summary
2.1 Biomolecules, p. 19
2.2 Cell Structure, p. 29
2.3 Cell-to-Cell Adhesions, p. 39
2.4 General Cell Functions, p. 40
2.5 Protein Synthesis, p. 42
2.6 Cell Division, p. 50
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
3 Cell Metabolism
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
3.1 Types of Metabolic Reactions
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Quick Check 3.1
3.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy
Energy and the Laws of Thermodynamics
Energy Changes in Reactions
How the Energy Change of a Reaction Determines Its Direction
Chemical Equilibrium
The Law of Mass Action
Apply Your Knowledge
Activation Energy
Quick Check 3.2
3.3 Reaction Rates
Factors Affecting the Rates of Chemical Reactions
Reactant and Product Concentrations
Temperature
The Height of the Activation Energy Barrier
The Role of Enzymes in Chemical Reactions
Mechanisms of Enzyme Action
Substrate Specificity
Cofactors and Coenzymes
Apply Your Knowledge
Factors Affecting the Rates of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
Catalytic Rate
Substrate Concentration
Enzyme Concentration
Affinity
Other Factors Affecting the Rate of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
Regulation of Enzyme Activity
Allosteric Regulation
Covalent Regulation
Feedback Inhibition
Feedforward Activation
Quick Check 3.3
3.4 ATP: The Medium of Energy Exchange
3.5 Glucose Oxidation: The Central Reaction of Energy Metabolism
Coupling Glucose Oxidation to ATP Synthesis
Quick Check 3.4
3.6 Stages of Glucose Oxidation: Glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation
Glycolysis
The Krebs Cycle
The Linking Step
Reactions of the Krebs Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation
The Electron Transport Chain
Chemiosmotic Coupling
Summary of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Apply Your Knowledge
Summary of Glucose Oxidation
Glucose Catabolism in the Absence of Oxygen
Quick Check 3.5
3.7 Energy Storage and Use: Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins
Glycogen Metabolism
Gluconeogenesis: Formation of New Glucose
Fat Metabolism
Protein Metabolism
Quick Check 3.6
Chapter Review
Summary
3.1 Types of Metabolic Reactions, p. 57
3.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy, p. 59
3.3 Reaction Rates, p. 63
3.4 ATP: The Medium of Energy Exchange, p. 72
3.5 Glucose Oxidation: The Central Reaction of Energy Metabolism, p. 73
3.6 Stages of Glucose Oxidation: Glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation, p. 74
3.7 Energy Storage and Use: Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins, p. 84
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
4 Cell Membrane Transport
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
4.1 Factors Affecting the Direction of Transport
Passive Transport Versus Active Transport
Driving Forces Acting on Molecules
Chemical Driving Forces
Quick Check 4.1
Electrical Driving Forces
The Membrane Potential
How the Membrane Potential Creates an Electrical Driving Force That Acts on Ions
Electrochemical Driving Forces
Determining the Direction of the Electrochemical Driving Force
Significance of the Electrochemical Driving Force
Quick Check 4.2
4.2 Rate of Transport
4.3 Passive Transport
Simple Diffusion: Passive Transport Through the Lipid Bilayer
The Basis for Simple Diffusion
Factors Affecting Rates of Simple Diffusion
The Magnitude of the Driving Force
Membrane Surface Area
Membrane Permeability
Quick Check 4.3
Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Utilizing Membrane Proteins
Carriers in Facilitated Diffusion
Factors Affecting the Rate of Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion Through Channels
Diffusion of Water Through Aquaporins
Diffusion Through Ion Channels
Factors Affecting the Rate of Transport Through Ion Channels
Quick Check 4.4
4.4 Active Transport
Primary Active Transport
Secondary Active Transport
Apply Your Knowledge
Factors Affecting Rates of Active Transport
Coexistence of Active and Passive Transport Mechanisms in Cells
Quick Check 4.5
4.5 Osmosis: Passive Transport of Water Across Membranes
Osmolarity
Apply Your Knowledge
Osmotic Pressure
Tonicity
Apply Your Knowledge
4.6 Transport of Material Within Membrane-Bound Compartments
Transport of Molecules into Cells by Endocytosis
Transport of Molecules Out of Cells by Exocytosis
Quick Check 4.6
4.7 Epithelial Transport: Movement of Molecules Across Two Membranes
Epithelial Structure
Epithelial Solute Transport
Epithelial Water Transport
Transcytosis
Quick Check 4.7
Chapter Review
Summary
4.1 Factors Affecting the Direction of Transport, p. 94
4.2 Rate of Transport, p. 100
4.3 Passive Transport, p. 101
4.4 Active Transport, p. 106
4.5 Osmosis: Passive Transport of Water Across Membranes, p. 110
4.6 Transport of Material Within Membrane-Bound Compartments, p. 114
4.7 Epithelial Transport: Movement of Molecules Across Two Membranes, p. 117
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
5 Chemical Messengers
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
5.1 Mechanisms of Intercellular Communication
Direct Communication Through Gap Junctions
Indirect Communication Through Chemical Messengers
5.2 Chemical Messengers
Functional Classification of Chemical Messengers
Chemical Classification of Messengers
Amino Acid Messengers
Amine Messengers
Peptide/Protein Messengers
Steroid Messengers
Eicosanoid Messengers
Quick Check 5.1
Synthesis and Release of Chemical Messengers
Amino Acids
Amines
Catecholamines
Serotonin
Histamine
Peptides and Proteins
Steroids
Apply Your Knowledge
Eicosanoids
Transport of Messengers
Quick Check 5.2
5.3 Signal Transduction Mechanisms
Properties of Receptors
The Relationship Between Receptor Binding and the Magnitude of the Target Cell Response
Receptor Agonists and Antagonists
Apply Your Knowledge
Signal Transduction Mechanisms for Responses Mediated by Intracellular Receptors
Mechanism of Action for Steroid Hormones
Mechanism of Action for Thyroid Hormones and 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3
Signal Transduction Mechanisms for Responses Mediated by Membrane-Bound Receptors
Channel-Linked Receptors
Enzyme-Linked Receptors
G Protein–Linked Receptors
cAMP Second Messenger System
Apply Your Knowledge
cGMP Second Messenger System
Phosphatidylinositol Second Messenger System
Signal Amplification in Chemical Messenger Systems
Quick Check 5.3
5.4 Long-Distance Communication via the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
Chapter Review
Summary
5.1 Mechanisms of Intercellular Communication, p. 125
5.2 Chemical Messengers, p. 126
5.3 Signal Transduction Mechanisms, p. 134
5.4 Long-Distance Communication via the Nervous and Endocrine Systems, p. 144
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
6 The Endocrine System: Endocrine Glands and Hormone Actions
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
6.1 Primary Endocrine Organs
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Neural Connection Between the Hypothalamus and the Posterior Pituitary Gland
Blood Connection Between the Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland
Anatomy of Hypothalamic-Pituitary Portal System
Tropic Hormones of the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary
Quick Check 6.1
Pineal Gland
Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands
Thymus
Adrenal Glands
Pancreas
Gonads
6.2 Secondary Endocrine Organs
Quick Check 6.2
6.3 Hormone Actions at the Target Cell
Control of Hormone Levels in Blood
Rate of Hormone Secretion
Transport of Hormones Bound to Carrier Proteins
Rate of Hormone Metabolism
6.4 Abnormal Secretion of Hormones
Apply Your Knowledge
6.5 Hormone Interactions
Quick Check 6.3
Chapter Review
Summary
6.1 Primary Endocrine Organs, p. 149
6.2 Secondary Endocrine Organs, p. 156
6.3 Hormone Actions at the Target Cell, p. 158
6.4 Abnormal Secretion of Hormones, p. 161
6.5 Hormone Interactions, p. 162
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
7 Nerve Cells and Electrical Signaling
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
7.1 Overview of the Nervous System
7.2 Cells of the Nervous System
Neurons
Localization of Ion Channels in Neurons
Structural Classification of Neurons
Functional Classification of Neurons
Structural Organization of Neurons in the Nervous System
Glial Cells
Quick Check 7.1
7.3 Establishment of the Resting Membrane Potential
Determining the Equilibrium Potentials for Potassium and Sodium Ions
Membrane Potential of a Cell Permeable Only to Potassium
Membrane Potential of a Cell Permeable Only to Sodium
Resting Membrane Potential of Neurons
Apply Your Knowledge
Neurons at Rest
Apply Your Knowledge
7.4 Electrical Signaling Through Changes in Membrane Potential
Describing Changes in Membrane Potential
Graded Potentials
Graded Potentials Are Decremental
Graded Potentials Can Be Depolarizations or Hyperpolarizations
Summation of Graded Potentials
Action Potentials
Ionic Basis of an Action Potential
The Role of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels in Action Potentials
The All-or-None Principle of Action Potentials
Quick Check 7.4
Refractory Periods
Apply Your Knowledge
Quick Check 7.5
Propagation of Action Potentials
Propagation of Action Potentials in Unmyelinated Axons
Action Potential Propagation in Myelinated Axons
Apply Your Knowledge
7.5 Maintaining Neural Stability
Quick Check 7.6
Chapter Review
Summary
7.1 Overview of the Nervous System, p. 167
7.2 Cells of the Nervous System, p. 168
7.3 Establishment of the Resting Membrane Potential, p. 174
7.4 Electrical Signaling Through Changes in Membrane Potential, p. 179
7.5 Maintaining Neural Stability, p. 192
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
8 Synaptic Transmission and Neural Integration
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
8.1 Electrical Synapses
8.2 Chemical Synapses
Functional Anatomy of Chemical Synapses
Apply Your Knowledge
Quick Check 8.1
Signal Transduction Mechanisms at Chemical Synapses
Excitatory Synapses
Inhibitory Synapses
Quick Check 8.2
8.3 Neural Integration
Summation
Temporal Summation
Spatial Summation
Frequency Coding
Quick Check 8.3
8.4 Presynaptic Modulation
Presynaptic Facilitation
Presynaptic Inhibition
Apply Your Knowledge
Quick Check 8.4
8.5 Neurotransmitters: Structure, Synthesis, and Degradation
Acetylcholine
Biogenic Amines
Amino Acid Neurotransmitters
Purines
Neuropeptides
Unique Neurotransmitters
Quick Check 8.5
Chapter Review
Summary
8.1 Electrical Synapses, p. 197
8.2 Chemical Synapses, p. 197
8.3 Neural Integration, p. 203
8.4 Presynaptic Modulation, p. 205
8.5 Neurotransmitters: Structure, Synthesis, and Degradation, p. 207
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
9 The Nervous System: Central Nervous System
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
9.1 General Anatomy of the Central Nervous System
Glial Cells
Astrocytes
Microglia
Physical Support of the Central Nervous System
Apply Your Knowledge
Blood Supply to the Central Nervous System
The Blood-Brain Barrier
Gray Matter and White Matter
Quick Check 9.1
9.2 The Spinal Cord
Spinal Nerves
Spinal Cord Gray and White Matter
Apply Your Knowledge
Quick Check 9.2
9.3 The Brain
Cerebral Cortex
Functional Organization of the Cerebral Cortex
Brain Lateralization
Subcortical Nuclei
Diencephalon
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Limbic System
Quick Check 9.3
9.4 Integrated CNS Function: Involuntary Movement Through Reflexes
Stretch Reflex
Apply Your Knowledge
Withdrawal and Crossed-Extensor Reflexes
Pupillary Light Reflex
Quick Check 9.4
9.5 Integrated CNS Function: Voluntary Motor Control
Neural Components for Smooth Voluntary Movements
Lateral Pathways Control Voluntary Movement
Ventromedial Pathways Control Voluntary and Involuntary Movements
The Control of Posture by the Brainstem
The Role of the Cerebellum in Motor Coordination
The Basal Nuclei in Motor Control
Quick Check 9.5
9.6 Integrated CNS Function: Language
9.7 Integrated CNS Function: Sleep
Functions of Sleep
Sleep-Wake Cycles
Electrical Activity During Wakefulness and Sleep
Quick Check 9.6
9.8 Integrated CNS Function: Emotions and Motivation
9.9 Integrated CNS Function: Learning and Memory
Learning
Memory
Plasticity in the Nervous System
Quick Check 9.7
Chapter Review
Summary
9.1 General Anatomy of the Central Nervous System, p. 216
9.2 The Spinal Cord, p. 224
9.3 The Brain, p. 229
9.4 Integrated CNS Function: Involuntary Movement Through Reflexes, p. 236
9.5 Integrated CNS Function: Voluntary Motor Control, p. 238
9.6 Integrated CNS Function: Language, p. 242
9.7 Integrated CNS Function: Sleep, p. 242
9.8 Integrated CNS Function: Emotions and Motivation, p. 245
9.9 Integrated CNS Function: Learning and Memory, p. 247
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
10 The Nervous System: Sensory Systems
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
10.1 General Principles of Sensory Physiology
Receptor Physiology
Sensory Transduction
Receptor Adaptation
Sensory Pathways
Quick Check 10.1
Sensory Coding
Coding for Stimulus Type
Coding for Stimulus Intensity
Coding for Stimulus Location
Quick Check 10.2
10.2 The Somatosensory System
Somatosensory Receptors
Mechanoreceptors in the Skin
Thermoreceptors in the Skin
Nociceptors in the Skin
The Somatosensory Cortex
Somatosensory Pathways
The Dorsal Column–Medial Lemniscal Pathway
Apply Your Knowledge
The Spinothalamic Tract
Apply Your Knowledge
Pain Perception
The Pain Response
Visceral Pain
Modulation of Pain Signals
Quick Check 10.3
10.3 Vision
Anatomy of the Eye
The Nature and Behavior of Light Waves
Accommodation
Clinical Defects in Vision
Regulating the Amount of Light Entering the Eye
Apply Your Knowledge
The Retina
Quick Check 10.4
Phototransduction
Rods versus Cones
Color Vision
Light Input to Circadian Rhythms
Bleaching of Photoreceptors in Light
Neural Processing in the Retina
Bipolar Cell Receptive Fields
Ganglion Cell Receptive Fields
Neural Pathways for Vision
Apply Your Knowledge
Parallel Processing in the Visual System
Depth Perception
Quick Check 10.5
10.4 The Ear and Hearing
Anatomy of the Ear
The Nature of Sound Waves
Sound Amplification in the Middle Ear
Signal Transduction for Sound
Functional Anatomy of the Cochlea
Functional Anatomy of the Organ of Corti
Sound Transduction by Inner Hair Cells
Coding of Sound Intensity and Pitch in the Cochlea
Neural Pathways for Sound
Quick Check 10.6
10.5 The Ear and Equilibrium
Anatomy of the Vestibular Apparatus
The Semicircular Canals and the Transduction of Rotation
The Utricle and Saccule and the Transduction of Linear Acceleration
Apply Your Knowledge
Neural Pathways for Equilibrium
Quick Check 10.7
10.6 Taste
Anatomy of Taste Buds
Signal Transduction in Taste
Neural Pathway for Taste
10.7 Olfaction
Anatomy of the Olfactory System
Olfactory Signal Transduction
Neural Pathway for Olfaction
Quick Check 10.8
Chapter Review
Summary
10.1 General Principles of Sensory Physiology, p. 254
10.2 The Somatosensory System, p. 262
10.3 Vision, p. 269
10.4 The Ear and Hearing, p. 285
10.5 The Ear and Equilibrium, p. 292
10.6 Taste, p. 295
10.7 Olfaction, p. 297
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
11 The Nervous System: Autonomic and Motor Systems
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
11.1 The Autonomic Nervous System
Dual Innervation in the Autonomic Nervous System
Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Nervous System
Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Nervous System
The Mixed Composition of Autonomic Nerves
Quick Check 11.1
Autonomic Neurotransmitters and Receptors
Types of Cholinergic Receptors
Types of Adrenergic Receptors
Apply Your Knowledge
Autonomic Neuroeffector Junctions
Regulation of Autonomic Function
Apply Your Knowledge
Quick Check 11.2
11.2 The Somatic Nervous System
Anatomy of the Somatic Nervous System
The Neuromuscular Junction
Quick Check 11.3
Chapter Review
Summary
11.1 The Autonomic Nervous System, p. 304
11.2 The Somatic Nervous System, p. 315
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
12 Muscle Physiology
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
12.1 Skeletal Muscle Structure
Structure at the Cellular Level
Structure at the Molecular Level
Quick Check 12.1
12.2 The Mechanism of Force Generation in Muscle
The Sliding-Filament Model
The Crossbridge Cycle: How Muscles Generate Force
Excitation-Contraction Coupling: How Muscle Contractions Are Turned On and Off
The Role of the Neuromuscular Junction in Excitation-Contraction Coupling
The Roles of Calcium, Troponin, and Tropomyosin in Excitation- Contraction Coupling
Apply Your Knowledge
Quick Check 12.2
12.3 The Mechanics of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
The Twitch
Phases of the Twitch
Isometric and Isotonic Twitches
Factors Affecting the Force Generated by Individual Muscle Fibers
Frequency of Stimulation
Fiber Diameter
Changes in Fiber Length
Apply Your Knowledge
Regulation of the Force Generated by Whole Muscles
Recruitment
The Size Principle
Velocity of Shortening
Quick Check 12.3
12.4 Skeletal Muscle Metabolism
Muscle Cell Metabolism: How Muscle Cells Generate ATP
The Role of the Creatine/Creatine Phosphate System
How Muscle Cell Metabolism Changes with Exercise Intensity
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Differences in Speed of Contraction: Fast-Twitch Fibers and Slow-Twitch Fibers
Differences in the Primary Mode of ATP Production: Glycolytic Fibers and Oxidative Fibers
Slow Oxidative, Fast Glycolytic, and Fast Oxidative Fibers
Response of the Three Fiber Types to Exercise
Resistance to Fatigue
Long-Term Responses of Muscles to Exercise
Quick Check 12.4
12.5 Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity
Muscle Activity Across Joints
Muscle Receptors for Coordinated Activity
Muscle Spindles
Golgi Tendon Organs
Quick Check 12.5
12.6 Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
Smooth Muscle
The Mechanism of Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Neural Regulation of Contraction
Multi-unit and Single-unit Smooth Muscle
Spontaneous Changes in Membrane Potential
Cardiac Muscle
Apply Your Knowledge
Quick Check 12.6
Chapter Review
Summary
12.1 Skeletal Muscle Structure, p. 323
12.2 The Mechanism of Force Generation in Muscle, p. 326
12.3 The Mechanics of Skeletal Muscle Contraction, p. 331
12.4 Skeletal Muscle Metabolism, p. 340
12.5 Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity, p. 347
12.6 Smooth and Cardiac Muscle, p. 350
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
13 The Cardiovascular System: Cardiac Function
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
13.1 An Overview of the Cardiovascular System
The Heart
Blood Vessels
Blood
Quick Check 13.1
13.2 The Path of Blood Flow Through the Heart and Vasculature
Series Flow Through the Cardiovascular System
Parallel Flow Within the Systemic or Pulmonary Circuit
Quick Check 13.2
13.3 Anatomy of the Heart
Myocardium and the Heart Wall
Valves and Unidirectional Blood Flow
Quick Check 13.3
13.4 Electrical Activity of the Heart
The Conduction System of the Heart
Pacemaker Cells of the Myocardium
Conduction Fibers of the Myocardium
Spread of Excitation Between Cells
Initiation and Conduction of an Impulse During a Heartbeat
Control of the Heartbeat by Pacemakers
Apply Your Knowledge
Spread of Excitation Through the Heart Muscle
The Ionic Basis of Electrical Activity in the Heart
Electrical Activity in Pacemaker Cells
Electrical Activity in Cardiac Contractile Cells
Apply Your Knowledge
Excitation-Contraction Coupling in Cardiac Contractile Cells
Recording the Electrical Activity of the Heart with an Electrocardiogram
Quick Check 13.4
13.5 The Cardiac Cycle
Phases of the Cardiac Cycle
Atrial and Ventricular Pressure
Aortic Pressure
Ventricular Volume
Apply Your Knowledge
Pressure-Volume Curve
Heart Sounds
Quick Check 13.5
13.6 Cardiac Output and Its Control
Apply Your Knowledge
Autonomic Input to the Heart
Factors Affecting Cardiac Output: Changes in Heart Rate
Neural Control of Heart Rate
Hormonal Control of Heart Rate
Integration of Heart Rate Control
Quick Check 13.6
Factors Affecting Cardiac Output: Changes in Stroke Volume
The Influence of Ventricular Contractility on Stroke Volume
Sympathetic Nervous Control of Ventricular Contractility
Hormonal Control of Ventricular Contractility
The Influence of End-Diastolic Volume on Stroke Volume: Starling’s Law
The Starling Curve
Significance of Starling’s Law
Factors Affecting End-Diastolic Volume
The Influence of Afterload on Stroke Volume
Summary of Factors Affecting Stroke Volume
Integration of Factors Affecting Cardiac Output
Quick Check 13.7
Chapter Review
Summary
13.1 An Overview of the Cardiovascular System, p. 360
13.2 The Path of Blood Flow Through the Heart and Vasculature, p. 362
13.3 Anatomy of the Heart, p. 365
13.4 Electrical Activity of the Heart, p. 367
13.5 The Cardiac Cycle, p. 377
13.6 Cardiac Output and Its Control, p. 382
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
14 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels, Blood Flow, and Blood Pressure
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
14.1 Physical Laws Governing Blood Flow and Blood Pressure
Pressure Gradients in the Cardiovascular System
The Role of Pressure Gradients in Driving Blood Flow
Pressure Gradients Across the Systemic and Pulmonary Circuits
Resistance in the Cardiovascular System
Resistance of Individual Blood Vessels
Apply Your Knowledge
Resistance of Blood Vessel Networks: Total Peripheral Resistance
Relating Pressure Gradients and Resistance in the Systemic Circulation
Quick Check 14.1
14.2 Overview of the Vasculature
14.3 Arteries
Arteries: A Pressure Reservoir
Arterial Blood Pressure
Measuring Arterial Blood Pressure
Quick Check 14.2
14.4 Arterioles
Arterioles and Resistance to Blood Flow
Intrinsic Control of Blood Flow Distribution to Organs
Regulation in Response to Changes in Metabolic Activity: Active Hyperemia
Regulation in Response to Changes in Blood Flow: Reactive Hyperemia
Regulation in Response to Stretch of Arteriolar Smooth Muscle: Myogenic Response
Regulation by Locally Secreted Chemical Messengers
Extrinsic Control of Arteriole Radius and Mean Arterial Pressure
Sympathetic Control of Arteriolar Radius
Hormonal Control of Arteriolar Resistance
Vasopressin (ADH)
Angiotensin II
Quick Check 14.3
14.5 Capillaries and Venules
Capillary Anatomy
Continuous Capillaries
Fenestrated Capillaries
Discontinuous Capillaries and Sinusoids
Local Control of Blood Flow Through Capillary Beds
Movement of Material Across Capillary Walls
Exchange Across Capillary Walls
Bulk Flow Across Capillary Walls
Hydrostatic Pressures
Osmotic Pressures
Net Filtration Pressure
Apply Your Knowledge
Factors Affecting Filtration and Absorption Across Capillaries
Venules
Quick Check 14.4
14.6 Veins
Veins: A Volume Reservoir
Factors That Influence Venous Pressure and Venous Return
The Skeletal Muscle Pump
The Respiratory Pump
Blood Volume
Venomotor Tone
Quick Check 14.5
14.7 The Lymphatic System
14.8 Mean Arterial Pressure and Its Regulation
Determinants of Mean Arterial Pressure: Heart Rate, Stroke Volume, and Total Peripheral Resistance
Regulation of Mean Arterial Pressure
Neural Control of Mean Arterial Pressure
Arterial Baroreceptors: Sensors of Mean Arterial Pressure
Cardiovascular Control Center of the Medulla Oblongata
Autonomic Inputs to Cardiovascular Effectors
The Baroreceptor Reflex
Hormonal Control of Mean Arterial Pressure
Control of Blood Pressure by Low-Pressure Baroreceptors (Volume Receptors)
Quick Check 14.6
14.9 Other Cardiovascular Regulatory Processes
Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia
Chemoreceptor Reflexes
Thermoregulatory Responses
Quick Check 14.7
Chapter Review
Summary
14.1 Physical Laws Governing Blood Flow and Blood Pressure, p. 395
14.2 Overview of the Vasculature, p. 398
14.3 Arteries, p. 399
14.4 Arterioles, p. 402
14.5 Capillaries and Venules, p. 409
14.6 Veins, p. 416
14.7 The Lymphatic System, p. 419
14.8 Mean Arterial Pressure and Its Regulation, p. 419
14.9 Other Cardiovascular Regulatory Processes, p. 426
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
15 The Cardiovascular System: Blood
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
15.1 Overview of the Composition of Blood: The Hematocrit
Apply Your Knowledge
15.2 Plasma
15.3 Erythrocytes
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport
Hemoglobin’s Reversible Binding of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Carbonic Anhydrase and the Carbon Dioxide–Bicarbonate Reaction
Life Cycle of Erythrocytes
Erythrocyte Production
Filtering and Destruction of Erythrocytes by the Spleen
Quick Check 15.1
15.4 Leukocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Quick Check 15.2
15.5 Platelets and Hemostasis
Apply Your Knowledge
Vascular Spasm
Platelet Plug
Formation of a Blood Clot
Factors Limiting Clot Formation
The Role of Coagulation Factors in Clot Formation Disorders
Aspirin as an Anticoagulant
15.6 Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease
Chapter Review
Summary
15.1 Overview of the Composition of Blood: The Hematocrit, p. 433
15.2 Plasma, p. 434
15.3 Erythrocytes, p. 434
15.4 Leukocytes, p. 438
15.5 Platelets and Hemostasis, p.441
15.6 Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease, p.445
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
16 The Respiratory System: Pulmonary Ventilation
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
16.1 Overview of Respiratory Function
16.2 Anatomy of the Respiratory System
Upper Airways
The Respiratory Tract
The Conducting Zone
Apply Your Knowledge
The Respiratory Zone
Structures of the Thoracic Cavity
Quick Check 16.1
16.3 Forces for Pulmonary Ventilation
Pulmonary Pressures
Mechanics of Breathing
Apply Your Knowledge
Determinants of Intra-alveolar Pressure
Inspiration
Expiration
Quick Check 16.2
16.4 Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation
Lung Compliance
Airway Resistance
Quick Check 16.3
16.5 Clinical Significance of Respiratory Volumes and Air Flows
Lung Volumes and Capacities
Pulmonary Function Tests
Apply Your Knowledge
Alveolar Ventilation
Quick Check 16.4
Chapter Review
Summary
16.1 Overview of Respiratory Function, p. 449
16.2 Anatomy of the Respiratory System, p. 449
16.3 Forces for Pulmonary Ventilation, p. 457
16.4 Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation, p. 461
16.5 Clinical Significance of Respiratory Volumes and Air Flows, p. 465
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
17 The Respiratory System: Gas Exchange and Regulation of Breathing
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
17.1 Overview of the Pulmonary Circulation
Quick Check 17.1
17.2 Diffusion of Gases
Partial Pressure of Gases
Solubility of Gases in Liquids
Apply Your Knowledge
17.3 Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Gas Exchange in the Lungs
Gas Exchange in Respiring Tissue
Determinants of Alveolar P O 2 and P CO 2
Quick Check 17.2
17.4 Transport of Gases in the Blood
Oxygen Transport in the Blood
Oxygen Transport by Hemoglobin
The Hemoglobin-Oxygen Dissociation Curve
Other Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hemoglobin for Oxygen
Apply Your Knowledge
Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood
The Role of Carbonic Anhydrase in Carbon Dioxide Transport
Carbon Dioxide Exchange and Transport in Systemic Capillaries and Veins
Carbon Dioxide Exchange and Transport in Pulmonary Capillaries and Veins
Effect of Oxygen on Carbon Dioxide Transport
Quick Check 17.3
17.5 Central Regulation of Ventilation
Neural Control of Breathing by Motor Neurons
Generation of the Breathing Rhythm in the Brainstem
Respiratory Control Centers of the Medulla
Respiratory Control Centers of the Pons
Central Pattern Generator
Model of Respiratory Control During Quiet Breathing
Peripheral Input to Respiratory Centers
Quick Check 17.4
17.6 Control of Ventilation by Chemoreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Chemoreceptor Reflexes
Quick Check 17.5
17.7 Local Regulation of Ventilation and Perfusion
Ventilation-Perfusion Ratios
Local Control of Ventilation and Perfusion
Quick Check 17.6
17.8 The Respiratory System in Acid-Base Homeostasis
Acid-Base Disturbances in Blood
The Role of the Respiratory System in Acid-Base Balance
Hemoglobin as a Buffer
Bicarbonate Ions as a Buffer
Quick Check 17.7
Chapter Review
Summary
17.1 Overview of the Pulmonary Circulation, p. 474
17.2 Diffusion of Gases, p. 476
17.3 Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide, p. 478
17.4 Transport of Gases in the Blood, p. 481
17.5 Central Regulation of Ventilation, p. 489
17.6 Control of Ventilation by Chemoreceptors, p. 492
17.7 Local Regulation of Ventilation and Perfusion, p. 495
17.8 The Respiratory System in Acid-Base Homeostasis, p. 496
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
18 The Urinary System: Renal Function
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
18.1 Functions of the Urinary System
18.2 Anatomy of the Urinary System
Structures of the Urinary System
Macroscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
Renal Corpuscle
Renal Tubule
Cortical and Juxtamedullary Nephrons
The Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
Blood Supply to the Kidney
Quick Check 18.1
18.3 Basic Renal Exchange Processes
Glomerular Filtration
Glomerular Filtration Rate
Filtration Fraction
Filtered Load
Apply Your Knowledge
Regulation of Glomerular Filtration Rate
Intrinsic Control of Glomerular Filtration
Extrinsic Control of Glomerular Filtration and Renal Blood Flow
Quick Check 18.2
Reabsorption
Solute and Water Reabsorption
Active Reabsorption of Solute
Water Reabsorption
Passive Reabsorption of Solute
Transport Maximum
Secretion
Quick Check 18.3
18.4 Regional Specialization of the Renal Tubules
Nonregulated Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule
Regulated Reabsorption and Secretion in the Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct
Water Conservation in the Loop of Henle
18.5 Excretion
Excretion Rate
Clearance
Clinical Uses of Clearance
Apply Your Knowledge
Estimates of Glomerular Filtration Rate
Determining the Fates of Solutes in Renal Tubules
Apply Your Knowledge
Micturition
Quick Check 18.4
Chapter Review
Summary
18.1 Functions of the Urinary System, p. 504
18.2 Anatomy of the Urinary System, p. 505
18.3 Basic Renal Exchange Processes, p. 508
18.4 Regional Specialization of the Renal Tubules, p. 519
18.5 Excretion, p. 520
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
19 The Urinary System: Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
19.1 The Concept of Balance
Factors Affecting the Plasma Composition
Apply Your Knowledge
Solute and Water Balance
19.2 Water Balance
Osmolarity and the Movement of Water
Water Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule
Establishment of the Medullary Osmotic Gradient
Countercurrent Multiplier
Role of Urea in the Medullary Osmotic Gradient
Role of the Vasa Recta in Preventing Dissipation of the Medullary Osmotic Gradient
Role of the Medullary Osmotic Gradient in Water Reabsorption in the Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct
Aquaporins and Water Permeability
Quick Check 19.1
Effects of ADH on Water Reabsorption
Regulation of ADH Secretion
Regulating Water Excretion by Changing GFR
Quick Check 19.2
19.3 Sodium Balance
Mechanisms of Sodium Reabsorption in the Renal Tubule
Apply Your Knowledge
The Effects of Aldosterone
The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Quick Check 19.3
19.4 Potassium Balance
Renal Handling of Potassium Ions
Regulation of Potassium Secretion by Aldosterone
19.5 Calcium Balance
Renal Handling of Calcium Ions
Hormonal Control of Plasma Calcium Concentrations
Effects of Parathyroid Hormone
Apply Your Knowledge
Effects of 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol
Effects of Calcitonin
Quick Check 19.4
19.6 Interactions Between Fluid and Electrolyte Regulation
Quick Check 19.5
19.7 Acid-Base Balance
Apply Your Knowledge
Sources of Acid-Base Disturbances
Respiratory Disturbances
Metabolic Disturbances
Defense Mechanisms Against Acid-Base Disturbances
Buffering of Hydrogen Ions
Respiratory Compensation
Renal Compensation
Renal Handling of Hydrogen and Bicarbonate Ions in the Proximal Tubule
Renal Handling of Hydrogen and Bicarbonate Ions in the Late Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct
Role of Glutamine in Renal Compensation During Severe Acidosis
Compensation for Acid-Base Disturbances
Respiratory Acidosis
Respiratory Alkalosis
Metabolic Acidosis
Metabolic Alkalosis
Evaluation of Acid-Base Disturbances
Quick Check 19.6
Chapter Review
Chapter Summary
19.1 The Concept of Balance, p. 532
19.2 Water Balance, p. 534
19.3 Sodium Balance, p.543
19.4 Potassium Balance, p. 548
19.5 Calcium Balance, p. 549
19.6 Interactions Between Fluid and Electrolyte Regulation, p. 551
19.7 Acid-Base Balance, p. 553
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
20 The Gastrointestinal System
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
20.1 Overview of Gastrointestinal System Processes
20.2 Functional Anatomy of the Gastrointestinal System
The Gastrointestinal Tract
Generalized Structure of the Gastrointestinal Wall
The Mucosa
The Submucosa
The Muscularis Externa
The Serosa
Quick Check 20.1
Functional Anatomy of Gastrointestinal Tract Organs
The Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus
The Stomach
The Small Intestine
The Colon
The Rectum and Anus
Quick Check 20.2
The Accessory Glands
The Salivary Glands
The Pancreas
The Liver
Quick Check 20.3
20.3 Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients and Water
Carbohydrates
Digestion of Carbohydrates to Monosaccharides
Absorption of Carbohydrates
Proteins
Digestion of Proteins to Small Peptides and Amino Acids
Absorption of Amino Acids and Small Peptides
Apply Your Knowledge
Lipids
Digestion of Triglycerides
The Action of Bile Salts
The Action of Pancreatic Lipase
Absorption of Lipids
Quick Check 20.4
Absorption of Vitamins
Apply Your Knowledge
Absorption of Minerals
Absorption of Sodium and Chloride
Absorption of Potassium
Absorption and Secretion of Bicarbonate
Regulated Absorption of Calcium
Absorption of Iron
Absorption of Water
20.4 General Principles of Gastrointestinal Regulation
Neural and Endocrine Pathways of Gastrointestinal Control
Short and Long Reflex Pathways
Phases of Gastrointestinal Control
Regulation of Food Intake
Quick Check 20.5
20.5 Gastrointestinal Secretion and Its Regulation
Saliva Secretion
Acid and Pepsinogen Secretion in the Stomach
Secretion of Pancreatic Juice and Bile
Rates of Fluid Movement in the Digestive System
Quick Check 20.6
20.6 Gastrointestinal Motility and Its Regulation
Electrical Activity in Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle
Peristalsis and Segmentation
Chewing and Swallowing
Gastric Motility
Gastric Motility Patterns
Regulation of Gastric Motility
Vomiting
Motility of the Small Intestine
Motility Patterns in the Small Intestine
Regulation of Motility of the Small Intestine
Quick Check 20.7
Motility of the Colon
Motility Patterns in the Colon
Regulation of Motility of the Colon
Defecation
Chapter Review
Summary
20.1 Overview of Gastrointestinal System Processes, p. 566
20.2 Functional Anatomy of the Gastrointestinal System, p. 566
20.3 Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients and Water, p. 577
20.4 General Principles of Gastrointestinal Regulation, p. 588
20.5 Gastrointestinal Secretion and Its Regulation, p. 591
20.6 Gastrointestinal Motility and Its Regulation, p. 594
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
21 The Endocrine System: Regulation of Energy Metabolism and Growth
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
21.1 An Overview of Whole-Body Metabolism
Anabolism
Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
21.2 Energy Intake, Utilization, and Storage
Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Carbohydrates
Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Proteins
Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Fats
21.3 Energy Balance
Energy Input
Energy Output
Metabolic Rate
Apply Your Knowledge
Negative and Positive Energy Balance
Quick Check 21.1
21.4 Energy Metabolism During the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States
Metabolism During the Absorptive State
Body Cells in General
Skeletal Muscle Cells
Liver Cells
Adipocytes
Energy Reserves
Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State
Body Cells in General
Skeletal Muscle Cells
Liver Cells
Adipocytes
Quick Check 21.2
21.5 Regulation of Absorptive and Postabsorptive Metabolism
The Role of Insulin
Factors Affecting Insulin Secretion
Actions of Insulin
The Role of Glucagon
Factors Affecting Glucagon Secretion
Actions of Glucagon
Negative Feedback Control of Blood Glucose Levels by Insulin and Glucagon
Stimulation of Insulin and Glucagon Secretion by Amino Acids
Effects of Epinephrine and Sympathetic Nervous Activity on Metabolism
Quick Check 21.3
21.6 Thermoregulation
Temperature Balance
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Between the Body and the External Environment
Regulation of Body Temperature
Thermoregulation in the Thermoneutral Zone
Heat Generation in a Cold Environment
Heat Loss in a Warm Environment
Alterations in the Set Point for Thermoregulation: Fever
21.7 Hormonal Regulation of Growth
Body Growth
Effects of Growth Hormone
Factors Affecting Growth Hormone Secretion
Bone Growth
Apply Your Knowledge
Effects of Abnormal Growth Hormone Secretion
Other Hormones That Affect Growth
Quick Check 21.4
21.8 Thyroid Hormones
Synthesis and Secretion of Thyroid Hormones
Apply Your Knowledge
Actions of Thyroid Hormones
21.9 Glucocorticoids
Factors Affecting Secretion of Glucocorticoids
Actions of Glucocorticoids
The Role of Cortisol in the Stress Response
Effects of Abnormal Glucocorticoid Secretion
Quick Check 21.5
Chapter Review
Summary
21.1 An Overview of Whole-Body Metabolism, p. 603
21.2 Energy Intake, Utilization, and Storage, p. 604
21.3 Energy Balance, p. 605
21.4 Energy Metabolism During the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States, p. 607
21.5 Regulation of Absorptive and Postabsorptive Metabolism, p. 611
21.6 Thermoregulation, p. 616
21.7 Hormonal Regulation of Growth, p. 619
21.8 Thyroid Hormones, p. 624
21.9 Glucocorticoids, p. 626
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
22 The Reproductive System
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
Before You Begin
22.1 An Overview of Reproductive Physiology
The Role of Gametes in Sexual Reproduction
Gene Sorting and Packaging in Gametogenesis: Meiosis
Components of the Reproductive System
Events Following Fertilization
Sex Determination
Sex Differentiation
Apply Your Knowledge
Patterns of Reproductive Activity over the Human Life Span
Quick Check 22.1
22.2 The Male Reproductive System
Functional Anatomy of the Male Reproductive Organs
The Testes
The External Genitalia
The Reproductive Tract
Accessory Glands
Hormonal Regulation of Reproductive Function in Males
Sperm and Their Development
The Sexual Response in Males
Erection
Ejaculation
Quick Check 22.2
22.3 The Female Reproductive System
Functional Anatomy of the Female Reproductive Organs
The Ovaries
The Reproductive Tract
The External Genitalia
Ova and Their Development
The Sexual Response in Females
Quick Check 22.3
The Menstrual Cycle
The Ovarian Cycle
The Follicular Phase
The Luteal Phase
The Uterine Cycle
The Menstrual Phase
The Proliferative Phase
The Secretory Phase
Hormonal Changes During the Menstrual Cycle
Hormonal Changes in the Early to Mid-follicular Phase
Hormonal Changes in the Late Follicular Phase
Hormonal Changes in the Luteal Phase
Long-Term Hormonal Regulation of Female Reproductive Function
Quick Check 22.4
22.4 Fertilization, Implantation, and Pregnancy
Events of Fertilization
Early Embryonic Development and Implantation
Apply Your Knowledge
Later Embryonic and Fetal Development
Development from Embryo to Fetus
Formation of the Placenta
Fetal Development
Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy
Quick Check 22.5
22.5 Parturition and Lactation
Events of Parturition
Apply Your Knowledge
Lactation
Quick Check 22.6
Chapter Review
Summary
22.1 An Overview of Reproductive Physiology, p. 632
22.2 The Male Reproductive System, p. 638
22.3 The Female Reproductive System, p. 645
22.4 Fertilization, Implantation, and Pregnancy, p. 655
22.5 Parturition and Lactation, p. 661
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
23 The Immune System
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
23.1 Anatomy of the Immune System
Physical Barriers
Leukocytes
Phagocytes
Lymphocytes
Tissue Cells of Hematopoietic Origin: Mast Cells and Dendritic Cells
Lymphoid Tissues
Central Lymphoid Tissues
Peripheral Lymphoid Tissues
Quick Check 23.1
23.2 Pathogens That Activate the Immune Response
Viruses
Bacteria
Fungi
Parasites
Quick Check 23.2
23.3 Organization of the Body’s Defenses
Nonspecific Defenses
Inflammation
Phagocytosis of Pathogens and Debris by Nearby Macrophages
Dilation and Increased Permeability of Capillaries
Containment of Foreign Matter
Leukocyte Migration and Proliferation
Apply Your Knowledge
Continued Clearing of Infection by Recruited Leukocytes
Interferons
Natural Killer Cells
The Complement System
Classical Pathway
Lectin Pathway
Alternative Pathway
Actions of Complements
Quick Check 23.3
Specific Defenses: Immune Responses
Features of Immune Responses
Specificity
Diversity
Memory
Self-Tolerance
Quick Check 23.4
23.4 Humoral Immunity
The Role of B Lymphocytes in Antibody Production
Antibody Function in Humoral Immunity
Neutralization
Agglutination
Opsonization
Complement Activation
Enhanced Activation of Natural Killer Cells
Quick Check 23.5
23.5 Cell-Mediated Immunity
Roles of T Lymphocytes in Cell-Mediated Immunity
MHC Molecules: Markers of Self
The Role of MHC Molecules in Antigen Presentation and T Cell Activation
Helper T Cell Activation
Cytotoxic T Cell Activation: The Destruction of Virus-Infected Cells and Tumor Cells
Quick Check 23.6
23.6 Immune Responses in Health and Disease
Generating Immunity: Immunization
Apply Your Knowledge
Roles of the Immune System in Transfusion and Transplantation
Blood-Group Compatibility
Tissue Grafts and Organ Transplantation
Quick Check 23.7
Immune Dysfunctions
Allergy
Autoimmune Diseases
Immunodeficiency Diseases
The Role of Stress in the Immune Response
Quick Check 23.8
Chapter Review
Summary
23.1 Anatomy of the Immune System, p. 669
23.2 Pathogens That Activate the Immune Response, p. 673
23.3 Organization of the Body’s Defenses, p. 675
23.4 Humoral Immunity, p. 685
23.5 Cell-Mediated Immunity, p. 687
23.6 Immune Responses in Health and Disease, p. 690
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
24 Diabetes Mellitus
Chapter Outline
Learning Outcomes
24.1 Classification of Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Quick Check 24.1
24.2 Acute Effects of Diabetes Mellitus
Acute Hyperglycemia
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Coma
Hypoglycemic Coma
Quick Check 24.2
24.3 Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Early Stages
Quick Check 24.3
24.4 Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Advanced Stages
Adverse Effects of Hyperglycemia
Effects of Diabetes Mellitus on the Microvasculature
Retinopathy
Nephropathy
Neuropathy
Quick Check 24.4
24.5 Progression of Diabetes Mellitus to Critical States
Effects of Diabetes on the Macrovasculature
Diabetic Cardiomyopathy
Quick Check 24.5
24.6 Delayed Wound Healing
Wound Healing
Phase 1: Inflammation
Phase 2: Proliferation
Phase 3: Remodeling
Altered Wound Healing in Diabetes
Quick Check 24.6
24.7 Treatment and Management of Diabetes Mellitus
Quick Check 24.7
24.8 Current Research on Diabetes Mellitus
New Techniques for Insulin Administration
Development of New Medicines for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
Nonpharmaceutical Therapies for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
Quick Check 24.8
Quick Check 15.3
How Does Diabetes Pathogenesis Progress?
Chapter Review
Summary
24.1 Classification of Diabetes Mellitus, p. 702
24.2 Acute Effects of Diabetes Mellitus, p. 704
24.3 Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Early Stages, p. 705
24.4 Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Advanced Stages, p. 706
24.5 Progression of Diabetes Mellitus to Critical States, p. 711
24.6 Delayed Wound Healing, p. 712
24.7 Treatment and Management of Diabetes Mellitus, p. 714
24.8 Current Research on Diabetes Mellitus, p. 715
Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
Objective Questions
Essay Questions
Critical Thinking
Answers
Credits
Chapter 1:
Chapter 2:
Chapter 3:
Chapter 4:
Chapter 5:
Chapter 6:
Chapter 7:
Chapter 8:
Chapter 9:
Chapter 10:
Chapter 11:
Chapter 12:
Chapter 13:
Chapter 14:
Chapter 15:
Chapter 16:
Chapter 17:
Chapter 18:
Chapter 19:
Chapter 20:
Chapter 21:
Chapter 22:
Chapter 23:
Chapter 24:
Glossary
Index
Frequently Used Abbreviations and Symbols